History of Urdu Literature

 

·       Controversy regarding origin

Scholars have opposing views regarding the origin of Urdu language. Dr. Mahmood Sherani does not agree with the idea that Urdu originated from more than one language.

But according to Dr. Masood Hussain, Urdu originated from the combination of Persian and Haryanvi. After the Arabs took control of Sidh and Multan, native and foreign languages ​​met each other, as a result of which a new language developed.

Dr. Yusuf Hussain has agreed with Dr. Masood Hussain's opinion that Urdu originated from the combination of Persian and Haryanavi.

Thus, Urdu developed with the cooperation of many languages, which later became an independent language. Amir Khusro called it 'Hindavi' or 'Dehlavi', it is also called Rekhta.

·       Contribution of Sufi saints

Prominent Sufi saints like Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, Khwaja Bakhtyar Kaki, Hazrat Fariduddin Ganjshakar, Hazrat Nizamuddin Aaliyah contributed significantly to the development of this new language. He used Urdu words in his sermons. Amir Khusro (1252-1324) used Urdu words extensively in Persian poetry.

goree sovai sej par, mukh par dare kes.

chal khusaro ghar tumane, rain bhee chahun des.

Sheikh Nizamuddin Aaliyah also used the words of 'Hindavi', which has been described in detail by the author of 'Fawayedul Fuwaad'.

·       Contribution of Bhakti saints

The saints of the Bhakti movement also gave their message to the people through 'Hindavi' (Urdu), because this language was more popular. Kabir has used words from Arabic, Persian and 'Hindavi' in his verses. Kabir has also written some ghazals.

haman hai ishk mastaana, haman ko hoshiyari kya?

aajaad rahe ya jag men, haman duniya se yaaree kya?

jo bichhude hain piyaare se, bhatakate dar-ba-dar phiraate,

hamaara yaar ham mein hai,  haman ka intazaari  kya hai?

Nanak also used Hindi words to convey his teachings to as many people as possible. Surdas and Tulsidas have also used Urdu words.

·       Urdu in the South

Sheikh Burhanuddin Garib and Hazrat Banda Nawaz Gesudaraj, disciples of Sheikh Nizamuddin Aaliyah, have contributed more to the development of Urdu in the south. After the fall of the Bahmani kingdom, two centers of development of Urdu became Golconda and Bijapur in the south.

The rulers of Golconda not only patronized scholars, but they themselves wrote verses in Urdu. Mohammad Qutubshah and Abdullah Qutubshah used to write poems in southern style. Many poets and scholars were respected in the Golconda royal court, prominent among them were Wajihi, the author of 'Qutub and Mushtari' and 'Sab Ras', Badayul Dhamal of Saiful Muluk and Ibne Nishati, the author of 'Tutinama'.

Adilshahi Sultan of Bijapur was a lover of art and education. In his royal court, Hashan Shauki, the author of 'Fathnama', Muqim, the author of Chandarbhan and 'Mahyar' poetry, and Rustami, the author of Masnavi 'Khabarnama', were patronized. Ibrahim Adilshah II was given the title of 'Jagatguru' because of his proficiency in Indian music. He wrote a book on music 'Nauras' and made Southern Urdu the official language in place of Persian. During the time of Ali Adilshah, Mulla Nusrat was respected in Bijapur court. He composed books named 'Alinama' and 'Gulshane Ishaq'.

·       Urdu in Gujarat

Even in Gujarat, Sufi saints contributed to the development of Urdu. Prominent among these saints were Sheikh Qutb Alam and Sheikh Ahmed Khattu, who moved to Gujarat after Tamur's invasion (1398) and where he preached to his disciples and the public in Urdu. A detailed description of his principles and teachings is found in 'Mirat-i-Sikandari'. After some time, a new style of Urdu writing started in Gujarat, which is called Gujarati style. Shah Ali Muhammad, the author of 'Jawaharul Asrar', Khub Muhammad Chishti, the author of 'Khub Tarang', Amin, the author of Yusuf Zulekha, wrote books in Gujarati style.

·       Urdu in the Mughal period

The close relationship between Akbar and Rajputs helped in the development of Urdu. A standard of Urdu was set during the times of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb; And during that period Rekhta (Urdu) developed completely. The tradition of Urdu poetry started from this time. Chander Bhan Brahmin, Muizuddin Musavi Khan Zafar Jatali, Mirza Abdul Ghani Kashmiri and Mirza Badil were among the prominent poets of this period, who wrote poetry in Urdu. The works of these poets gave a new turn in the development of Urdu.

Thus, the origin and development of Urdu language is the result of the coming closer of two cultures. No one culture has the credit for its origin, nor does any particular class have a role in its development.

·       Prominent Urdu litterateurs

Shamsuddin Wali (1668-1744 AD) is rightly called the 'Baba Adam' of Urdu. Wali was born in Aurangabad. In 1700 AD, Wali came to Delhi and took initiation from Delhi's famous poet and Sufi saint Shah Sadullah Gulshan Shah. Wali presented Persian thoughts and ideas in Urdu. For example, the following lines are presented:

mufalisee sab bahaar khotee hai

mard ka etibaar khotee hai

Shah Mubarak 'Aabru' - Aabru wrote Masnavi and Ghazals. In his works, the description of the beauty, image and dress of his beloved is prominent along with the description of the nails and tips of makeup and juice. He has also made beautiful use of ornaments. for example

phirate the dasht dasht divaane kidhar gae

o aashikee ke hae zamaane kidhar gae.

ja rahe hain par naam bataaya na kuchh mujhe

puchun main kis tarah kee phulaane kidhar gae.

Mir Taqi Mir- The most famous and best poet of this era was Mir Taqi Mir, who has written his autobiography in the name of 'Zikr-i-Mir'. Mir was born in Agra in 1725.

naazukee uske lab kee kya kahee

phankhudee ik gulaab kee see hai

meer un neem-baaz aankhon mein

saaree masti  sharaab kee see hai

Ghazal of Mir-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ch4lGXeW8C8

Another ghazal

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e5V3e49XxFk

Ghalib- Ghalib's full name was Mirza Asadullah Khan and his surname was 'Ghalib'. He is considered the greatest poet of Urdu literature. The following lines of Ghalib are presented as examples:

"hamako malum hai. jannat kee haqiqat lekin.

dil ke khush rakhne ko gaalib khayal achchha hai."

A ghazal of Ghalib

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Mso1drHQdE&list=PLHFIbZ0Hl7eZEYPCbOoefcxoT1cnh0Gk7&index=7

Bahadurshah 'Zafar' - Although the last Mughal emperor Bahadurshah Zafar was a nominal emperor and did not have any important place in history as an emperor, but he had made a high place for himself in the world of Urdu poetry.

"na kisee kee aankh ka noor hoon, na kisee ke dil ka qaraar hoon.

jo kisee ke kaam na aa sake, main vo ek musht gubaar hoon.

jo bigad gaya vo nashib hoon, jo ujad gaya vo dayaar hoon."

Ghazal of Zafar

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ha3V_87LvR0

Another ghazal

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fg_yG47DBRs

उर्दू साहित्य का इतिहास

उत्पत्ति के संदर्भ में विवाद

उर्दू भाषा की उत्पत्ति के विषय में विद्वानों के विरोधी मत हैं। डॉ० महमूद शेरानी इस विचार से सहमत नहीं हैं कि उर्दू की उत्पत्ति एक से अधिक भाषाओं से हुई।

परन्तु डॉ० मसूद हुसेन के अनुसार उर्दू की उत्पत्ति फारसी और हरियाणवी के मेल से हुई । सिध और मुल्तान पर अरबों के अधिकार हो जाने से देशी और विदेशी भाषाएँ एक-दूसरे के सम्पर्क में आईं, जिसके फलस्वरूप एक नई भाषा विकसित हुई।

डॉ० युसुफ हुसेन ने डॉ० मसूद हुसेन के इस मत से कि फारसी और हरियाणी के संयोग से उर्दू की उत्पत्ति हुई, सहमति प्रकट की है।

इस प्रकार उर्दू कई भाषाओं के सहयोग से विकसित हुई, वे जो आगे चल कर एक स्वतंत्र भाषा बन गई। अमीर खुसरो ने इसे 'हिन्दवी' या 'देहलवी'' कहा, इसे रेख्ता भी कहा जाता है ।

सूफी संतो का योगदान

प्रमुख सूफी सन्त जैसे ख्वाजा मुइनुद्दीन चिश्ती, ख्वाजा बख्तयार काकी, हजरत फरीदउद्दीन गंजशकर, हजरत निजामुद्दीन औलिया ने इस नई भाषा के विकास में काफी योगदान दिया । उन्होंने अपने उपदेशों में उर्दू के शब्दों का प्रयोग किया । अमीर खुसरो ने (1252-1324) में फारसी की कविता में उर्दू के शब्दों का अत्यधिक प्रयोग किया ।

गोरी सोवै सेज पर, मुख पर डारे केस।

चल ख़ुसरो घर आपने, रैन भई चहुँ देस॥

शेख निजामुद्दीन औलिया ने भी 'हिन्दवी' के शब्दों का प्रयोग किया, जिसका 'फवायेदुल फुवाद' के लेखक ने विस्तार से वर्णन किया है।

भक्ति संतों का योगदान

भक्ति आन्दोलन के सन्तों ने भी 'हिन्दवी' (उर्दू) के माध्यम से लोगों को अपना सन्देश दिया, क्योंकि यह भाषा अधिक प्रचलित थी । कबीर ने अपने पदों में अरबी, फारसी तथा 'हिन्दवी' के शब्दों का प्रयोग किया है। कबीर ने कुछ गजलें भी लिखी हैं ।

हमन है इश्क मस्ताना, हमन को होशियारी क्या ?

रहें आजाद या जग से, हमन दुनिया से यारी क्या ?

जो बिछुड़े हैं पियारे से, भटकते दर-ब-दर फिरते,

हमारा यार है हम में हमन को इंतजारी क्या ?

नानक ने भी अपने उपदेशों को अधिक से अधिक लोगों तक पहुँचाने के लिए हिन्दवी के शब्दों का प्रयोग किया । सूरदास और तुलसीदास ने भी उर्दू के शब्दों का प्रयोग  किया है।

दक्षिण में उर्दू

दक्षिण में उर्दू के विकास में शेख निजामुद्दीन औलिया के शिष्य शेख बुरहानुद्दीन गरीब और हजरत बंदा  नवाज गेसूदराज ने अधिक योगदान दिया है। बहमनी राज्य के पतन के बाद दक्षिण में उर्दू के विकास के  दो केन्द्र-गोलकुण्डा व बीजापुर बन गये ।

गोलकुण्डा के शासकों ने न केवल विद्वानों को प्रश्रय दिया, परन्तु वे स्वयं उर्दू में पद लिखते थे । मोहम्मद कुतुबशाह और अब्दुल्ला कुतुबशाह दक्षिणी शैली में कवितायें लिखते थे । गोलकुण्डा राजदरबार में अनेक कवियों और विद्वानों को सम्मान प्राप्त था, उनमें प्रमुख थे 'कुतुब व मुश्तरी' और 'सब रस' के रचयिता वजीही, सैफुल मुलुक का बदय्युल धमाल और 'तूतीनामा' के लेखक इब्ने निशाती।

बीजापुर के आदिलशाही सुल्तान कला और शिक्षा के प्रेमी थे। उनके राज दरबार में 'फाथनामा' के लेखक हशन शौकी, चन्दरभान व 'मह्यार' कविता के रचयिता मुकीम और मसनवी 'खबरनामा' के लेखक रुस्तामी को संरक्षण प्राप्त था । इब्राहीम आदिलशाह द्वितीय को भारतीय संगीत में दक्ष होने के कारण 'जगतगुरु' की उपाधि दी गई थी । उसने संगीत पर एक पुस्तक 'नौरस' लिखी और दक्षिणी उर्दू को फारसी के स्थान पर राजभाषा बनाया। अली आदिलशाह के समय में बीजापुर दरबार में मुल्ला नुसरत को सम्मान प्राप्त था । उसने 'अलीनामा' और 'गुलशने इशाक' नामक ग्रन्थों की रचना की।

गुजरात में उर्दू

गुजरात में भी सूफी सन्तों ने उर्दू के विकास में अपना योगदान दिया । इनमें प्रमुख सन्त थे शेख कुतुब आलम और शेख अहमद खत्तू, जो तैमूर के आक्रमण (1398) के बाद गुजरात चले गये थे और जहाँ उन्होंने उर्दू में अपने शिष्यों और जनता को उपदेश दिया। 'मीराते सिकन्दरी' में उनके सिद्धान्तों और उपदेशों का विस्तृत वर्णन मिलता है। कुछ समय के बाद गुजरात में उर्दू लेखन की एक नयी शैली का आरम्भ हुआ, जिसे गुजराती शैली कहते हैं। 'जवाहरूल असरार' के लेखक शाह अली मुहम्मद जीव 'खूब तरंग' के लेखक खूब मुहम्मद चिश्ती, युसुफ जुलेखा के लेखक अमीन ने गुजराती शैली में ग्रन्थ लिखे ।

मुगल काल में उर्दू

अकबर और राजपूतों के घनिष्ठ सम्बन्ध के कारण उर्दू के विकास में सहायता मिलो । शाहजहाँ और औरंगजेब के समय में उर्दू का एक स्तर निर्धारित हुआ; और उस काल में रेखता (उर्दू) का पूर्ण रूप से विकास हुआ । इसी समय से उर्दू शायरी को परम्परा आरम्भ हुई । चन्दर भान ब्राह्मण, मुइजुद्दीन मुसावी खाँ जफर जताली, मिर्जा अब्दुल गनी कश्मीरी और मिर्जा बॅदिल इस काल के प्रमुख कवियों में थे, जिन्होंने उर्दू में शायरी लिखी । इन कवियों की रचनाओं ने उर्दू के विकास में एक नया मोड़ दिया ।

इस प्रकार उर्दू भाषा की उत्पत्ति एवं विकास दो संस्कृतियों के समीप आने का परिणाम है। किसी एक संस्कृति को इसकी उत्पत्ति का श्रेय नहीं है और न इसके विकास में किसी वर्ग विशेष का हाथ है ।

उर्दू के प्रमुख साहित्यकार

शम्सुददीन वली (1668-1744 ई0) को बहुत ही उचित रुप से उर्दू का 'बाबा आदमं कहा जाता है। वली का जन्म औरंगाबाद में हुआ था। सन् 1700 ई0 में वली दिल्ली आये और उन्होंने दिल्ली के प्रसिद्ध कवि तथा सूफी सन्त शाह सादुल्ला गुलशन शाह से दीक्षा ग्रहण की। वली ने फारसी विचारो और कल्पनाओं का उर्दू में व्यवहार किया। उदाहरणार्थ निम्न पंक्तियां प्रस्तुत हैं-

मुफ़्लिसी सब बहार खोती है

मर्द का ए'तिबार खोती है

शाह मुबारक 'आबरू' - आबरू ने मसनवी तथा गजलें लिखी थीं। इनकी रचनाओं में श्रृंगार-रस के नख-शिख वर्णन की रीति पर प्रेमिका की सुन्दरता, छबि और पहनावे का वर्णन प्रमुख है। इन्होंने अलंकारों का भी सुन्दर प्रयोग किया है। उदाहरणार्थ

फिरते थे दश्त दश्त दिवाने किधर गए

वे आशिक़ी के हाए ज़माने किधर गए.

जाते रहे पे नाम बताया न कुछ मुझे

पूछूँ मैं किस तरह कि फ़ुलाने किधर गए.

मीर तकी मीर- इस युग के सबसे प्रसिद्ध तथा सर्वश्रेष्ठ कवि मीर तकी मीर थे, जिन्होंने अपनी आत्मकथा 'जिक्र-ए-मीर' के नाम से लिखी है। मीर सन् 1725 में आगरा में पैदा हुए थे।

मीर की कुछ पंक्तियाँ प्रस्तुत हैं-

नाज़ुकी उस के लब की क्या कहिए

पंखुड़ी इक गुलाब की सी है

'मीर' उन नीम-बाज़ आँखों में

सारी मस्ती शराब की सी है

मीर की ग़ज़ल-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ch4lGXeW8C8

एक दूसरी ग़ज़ल

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e5V3e49XxFk

गालिब- गालिब का पूरा नाम मिर्जा असदउल्ला खाँ था और उपनाम 'गालिब' था। यह उर्दू साहित्य के सर्वोच्च शायर माने जाते हैं। गालिब की निम्न पंक्तियां उदाहरणार्थ प्रस्तुत हैं-

"हमको मालूम है. जन्नत की हकीकत लेकिन।

दिल के खुश रखने को 'गालिब' से ख्याल अच्छा है।।"

ग़ालिब की एक ग़ज़ल

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Mso1drHQdE&list=PLHFIbZ0Hl7eZEYPCbOoefcxoT1cnh0Gk7&index=7

बहादुरशाह 'जफर' - यद्यपि अंतिम मुगल सम्राट बहादुरशाह जफर नाममात्र का बादशाह था और उसका बादशाह के रुप में इतिहास में कोई महत्वपूर्ण स्थान नहीं था लेकिन उन्होंने उर्दू काव्य जगत में अपना एक उच्च स्थान बना लिया था।

"न किसी की आँख का नूर हूँ, न किसी के दिल का करार हूँ।

जो किसी के काम न आ सके, मैं वो एक मुश्ते गुबार हूँ।।

जो बिगड़ गया वो नसीब हूँ, जो उजड़ गया वो दयार हूँ।।"

जफ़र की एक गज़ल

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ha3V_87LvR0

एक दूसरी ग़ज़ल

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fg_yG47DBRs

History of Hindi Literature

The development of Hindi language and literature had started even before the establishment of Muslim rule in India.

A.    Old Period

The poets of this period praised the bravery, beauty and charity of the patron kings and their ancestors. Besides, they were also influenced by religious beliefs.

1.      Siddha literature

Over time, Buddhism transformed into the practice of Tantra-Mantra. Vajra Yaan was a similar type of sadhana. The Siddhas were related to this Vajra Yaan. Their number is said to be 84. The first Siddha Sarhapa was from the 8th century. He strongly attacked the Vedic Varnashrama religion.

2.      Nath literature

The word Nath means one who grants liberation. There was a combination of ideas of Buddhist and Shaiva sects. There is mention of nine Naths in this sect. He established the Nivriti Marg against the Pravriti Marg of the Siddhas. Gorakhnath used to say

"nau laakh paatar aage naachen, peechhe sahaj akhara.

aise man le jogee khelen, tab antaree base bhandaara.

3.      Jain poet

The word Jain is derived from Jin, which means victory over worldly attractions. Jains enjoyed the patronage of kings and rich merchants. Among the major Jain poets, the prominent name is Hemchandra who belonged to the 11th century and his couplets are compiled in Prakrit Vyakaran. The main composition of Swayambhu is Paum Chariyam. It describes the character of Ram. Pushpadant, who was earlier a Shaivite, now became a Jain but his subject matter was Ram.

4.      Raso or heroic literature

Three types of texts were written in the Raso poetry stream – bravery-oriented, Love-oriented, and sermon-oriented.

The best example of a heroic composition is Chand Bardai's Prithvi Raj Raso. It has a beautiful description of the heroine, the army's march, war, seasons etc. Jagnik's Aalha Khand is also an important composition.

Whereas among the compositions based on Shringaar is Bisaldev Raso of Narapati Nalh. The first description of Barahamasa is found in it. Mulla Dawood's Chandayan is also a famous composition.

5.      Other poets

Amir Khusro

Khusro is considered the first poet of Khadi Boli Hindi and Urdu. His personality was multi-dimensional. Among his main texts, Paheliyan, Mukariyaan, Do Sukhne, Ghazal, Khalik Bari and Dhakosla are famous. Both the sentiment and the art aspect of Khusro's works are amazing.

Emotional Art

kaahe ko biyaahe parades, sun baabul mor,

bhaiya ko dihe baabul, mahala do mahala

hamako die paradesh, sun baabul mor

main to hoon baabul tore khoonte kee tarah,

haankee haankee jaoon pradesh

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxOwoO40xJw

Art of Language

Use of Persian and Braj language

ze-haal-i-miskeen makun tagaaful durae nainaan baneen batiyaan

ki taab-i-hijaraan nadaram ai jaan na lehoo kaahe lagaye chhatariyaan

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X0bCsxJk3P8

Vidyapati

Vidyapati is a Maithil poet of medieval period. In these, both devotion and adornment have predominance. Padavali is his main creation. It describes the love of Radha Krishna.

sakhee he, ki pachchhee anubhav moye.

seh pariti anuraag bakhaani til-til nootan hoe.

janm abadhi ham roop nihaaral nayan na tirapit bhel.

 

B.  Bhakti Period

After the establishment of Delhi Sultanate in India, the influence of Islam started increasing. Among the many reasons for this, one of the main reasons was the evil practices prevalent in the Hindu society. Therefore, Hindu religious reformers started propagating the path of Bhakti to stop the influence of Islam and to end the rituals and external ostentation prevalent in Hindu religion, which led to the emergence of Bhakti movement.

The saints of this period adopted two forms of devotion, Nirguna and Saguna.

1.     Nirguna branch

The saints of this branch took shelter of knowledge and love, due to which, under the Nirguna branch, Gyanashrayi and Premashrayi sub-branches were born.

(a) Gyanashrayi Branch

Among the Gyanashrayi saints under Nirguna branch, the names of Kabir, Nanak, Raidas, Dadu Dayal, Malukdas etc. are prominent.

Kabir was born in Kashi in 1398 AD. He was brought up by a weaver named Ali or Neeru. Kabir was not educated, yet he provided valuable education to Hindus and Muslims. Kabir has accepted being a disciple of Swami Ramanand but at one place he also mentions taking initiation from Sufi saint Sheikh Taqi. His collection of speeches is famous by the name of Bijak in which it has been divided into three parts: Ramaini, Sabad and Sakhi.

Raidas was a contemporary of Kabir. He belonged to this caste of tanners. None of his texts are available. Only a few verses under the name of 'Bani' are found in the 'Santabani Series'. Forty of his verses are stored in 'Guru Granth Sahib'. The language of his posts is simple and easy.

Dadu Dayal was born in 1544 AD in Ahmedabad. He was a Kabir fan due to which Kabir's name has appeared at many places in his 'Bani'. His 'Bani' is mostly in couplets similar to Kabir's Sakhi. He has written verses in Punjabi and Gujarati. Their language is mixed western Hindi in which Arabic and Persian words are used at some places.

Malukdas was born in 1574 AD in a place called Kada in Allahabad. Arabic and Persian words are used in their language. Some of his verses are also in Khadi dialect. His two famous works are 'Ratlakhan' and 'Gyan Bodh'.

(b) Premashayi Branch

The romantic poets of Nirguna branch were mainly Sufis.

 

Qutuban was a disciple of Sufi Sheikh Burhan Chishtia. He composed a famous love poem named 'Mrigavati'. In this, there is a beautiful description of the love story of the prince of Ganpati Dev of Chandranagar and Mrigavati, the daughter of King Roopmurari of Kanchanpur. Its language is Awadhi.

The title of Manjhan's work is 'Madhumalati' which is in Awadhi language. In this, divine love is shown through the love of Prince Manohar of Kanesar and Princess Madhumalati of Maharas. In this, one couplet has been written after every five quatrains.

Jayasi's full name was Malik Mohammad Jayasi who was a resident of Jais located in Rae Bareli district of Uttar Pradesh. He composed three texts - 'Padmavat', 'Akhravat' and 'Aakhri Kangam'. 'Padmavat' is the most famous among these three books. Jayasi has tried to present the complete Sufist philosophy through love poetry. Their language is Awadhi. 'Padmavat' is counted among the high quality creations in Hindi literature.

2.     Saguna branch-

The poets of this branch composed in the likeness of their respective deities. Among these, some accepted Ram and some accepted Krishna as their favorite deity, due to which the Ram-bhakti sub-branch and Krishna-bhakti sub-branch emerged.

(a) Devotion to Ram

Swami Ramanand propagated Ram Bhakti but among the Ram devotee poets, the names of Goswami Tulsidas and Acharya Keshavdas are most prominent. Tulsidas was born in 1532 AD in Rajapur village of Banda. His Sagun Ram was the son of King Dasharatha. He laid special emphasis on devotion to Ram and called the world 'Siyarammay'. He accepted Ram as Brahma and Sita as nature. Among his works, 'Ramlala Nahchhu', 'Janaki Mangal', 'Vairagya Sandipani', 'Ramcharit Manas', 'Satsai', 'Barvai Ramayan', 'Vinaya Patrika', 'Geetavali' are very famous. Their language is mainly Awadhi.

Acharya Keshavdas Goswami was a contemporary of Tulsidas. He was born in 1555 AD in a Brahmin family. His famous work is 'Ramachandrika' which is in Braj language.

(b) Devotion to Krishna

Vallabhacharya's place is most prominent among the Krishna devotees of Saguna branch, in whose disciple tradition the name of Surdas is paramount. Apart from Surdas, the names of Meerabai, Raskhan, Nanddas, Krishnadas, Parmanand Das are notable among the poets of Krishna Bhakti sub-branch.

Surdas was born in 1483 AD in a village called Ruknata. He composed books like 'Soorasaravali', 'Sahitya Lahari' and 'Soorsagar' etc. His poetic language is Braj. Surdas has the best place among the poets who sing the praises of Krishna.

Meera was born in 1499 AD in a village named Kudki of Merta. His father was Ratan Singh Rathore. She was married to Bhojraj, the crown prince of Udaipur, but after some time of marriage, she became a widow. The language of most of Meera's verses is Rajasthani but some verses are in literary Braj language. According to Acharya Ramchandra Shukla, four texts written by Meera are said to be - 'Narsi Ka Myra', 'Geet Govind Tika', 'Raag Govind'.

Raskhan belonged to the Afghan dynasty of Delhi. It is said that he became a devotee of Krishna after seeing his picture. His famous works are 'Prem Vatika' and 'Sujan Raskhan'. Their language is pure Braj in which Arabic and Persian words are also used.

3.   Riti Period

The rise of Riti period in Hindi literature is believed to be from 1643 AD, which some scholars have termed as 'Shringaar period'. Sunder Das, Chintamani and Kavindra Acharya were prominent poets in the court of Shahjahan.

Sundar Das was a Brahmin of caste and was a resident of Gwalior. Shahjahan had honored him with the title of 'Maha Kavirai'. He wrote books named 'Sundar Shringaar', 'Simhasan Battisi' and 'Barhamasa'.

Chintamani was a resident of Kanpur. He was a high class poet of his time. Shahjahan patronized him. He wrote books named 'Chhand Vichar', 'Kavya Vivek', 'Kavikul Kalpataru' and 'Kavya Prakash'.

Kavindra Acharya was a resident of Banaras. He wrote 'Kavindra Kalpalata' in praise of Shahjahan and his sons.

King Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur was interested in Hindi language. He wrote a book named 'Bhasha Bhushan' in Braj language.

Bihari Lal was born in Govindpur near Gwalior. He was patronized by Mirza Raja Jai ​​Singh, who honored him with the title of Rajkavi. Seeing his patron immersed in luxury, he wrote the following couplet and sent it to him: -

nahin paar nahin madhur madhu nahin vikaasaatmak.

alee kaalee hee so bandhyo, aage kaun havaal.

Bihari has composed 'Satsai', in which couplets and verses have been used. Bihari has described Shringaar beautifully and has tried to show all the stages of union and separation skillfully.

Bhushan (1613-1715) was honored with the title of 'Kavi Bhushan' by Solanki king Rudra of Chitrakoot. Since then he is famous as Bhushan. His three famous books are - 'Shivraj Bhushan', 'Shiva Bavani' and 'Chhatrasal Dashak'. These books are influenced by Ritikaal.