1. Early Achievements
A. Excellence in the Military
- Jalaluddin's background was a blend of Turkish and Afghan cultural influences, as his family had been settled in the Helmand Valley (Afghanistan) for two centuries.
- His ancestors migrated to India during Iltutmish's reign and served under the Turkish sultans.
- Jalaluddin joined the army during Balban's rule.
- Impressed by his abilities, Balban entrusted him with the responsibility of protecting the northwestern frontier.
- He showcased his competence in battles against the Mongols.
- Eventually, he attained the position of Ariz-i-Mamalik (Minister of War).
B. Rise in Politics
During the Reign of Kaikubad
- Before his death, Balban had nominated his grandson, Kaikhusrau (son of Muhammad), as his successor. However, after Balban's death, Delhi's Kotwal, Fakhruddin Muhammad, conspired to send Kaikhusrau to govern Multan and made Kaikubad, son of Bugra Khan, the Sultan.
- At the time, Kaikubad was only 17 or 18 years old. Fakhruddin's son-in-law, Nizamuddin (the city official or Dadbeg), took advantage of Kaikubad's youth and pushed him towards indulgence.
- Jalaluddin Khilji was the governor of Samana during this period.
- Nizamuddin became Naib-i-Mamalikat (Deputy of the Kingdom) and assumed control of governance.
- When Bugra Khan, Kaikubad's father, learned of these developments, he marched towards Delhi with a large army. In 1288 CE, Bugra Khan and Kaikubad met near the Ghaghra River in Ayodhya.
- Bugra Khan advised his son to abandon a life of indulgence and get rid of Nizamuddin.
- Acting on his father's advice, Kaikubad initially renounced luxury and ordered Nizamuddin to leave for Multan. When Nizamuddin hesitated, Kaikubad had him poisoned to death.
- With Nizamuddin's death, the administration fell into chaos, and power shifted to two Turkish nobles, Malik Kachhan and Malik Surkha.
- Kaikubad summoned Malik Firoz Khilji (later Jalaluddin Khilji) from Samana and appointed him governor of Baran (Bulandshahr) and Ariz-e-Mamalik, conferring upon him the title of Shaista Khan.
During the Reign of Kayumars
- Jalaluddin’s appointment displeased the Turkish nobles, and the court divided into two rival factions: one led by Malik Firoz Khilji (Jalaluddin) and the other by Malik Surkha.
- Firoz Khilji's faction sought the dominance of new elements, while Surkha's faction aimed to protect the interests of Turkish nobles and restore Balban's lineage.
- Meanwhile, Kaikubad suffered a paralytic stroke. The Turkish nobles took advantage of the situation, enthroned his three-year-old son Kayumars, and crowned him Shamsuddin II at the Nasiri Pavilion.
- Malik Kachhan and Surkha planned to eliminate all non-Turkish nobles, with Jalaluddin being their first target.
- Malik Kachhan personally undertook the task of killing Jalaluddin but failed. Jalaluddin uncovered the conspiracy and assassinated Kachhan.
- Subsequently, Jalaluddin entered Delhi with his army, imprisoned the Sultan and Kotwal Fakhruddin’s children, and proposed that Farukhuddin or Malik Chhajju act as guardians of the Sultan. When both declined, Jalaluddin assumed the role himself.
- Three months later, Jalaluddin had Kayumars assassinated. A Khilji noble wrapped Kaikubad in a sheet and drowned him in the Yamuna River. With this, the Ilbari dynasty came to an end, and the Khilji dynasty emerged.
Accession to the Throne
- At the age of 70, Jalaluddin Firoz ascended the throne on June 13, 1290 CE, in the unfinished palace at Kilokhari (Kilu Ghar) built by Kaikubad. He decided to stay there for a year because the people of Delhi, accustomed to 80 years of Ilbari Turk rule, were reluctant to accept Khilji rule.
- A year later, he moved to Delhi at the invitation of the city’s Kotwal and other officials. Upon arriving, he paid homage to Balban and refused to sit on his throne.
- Addressing the nobles, he emotionally said, “You know that none of my ancestors were rulers, and I have not inherited the pride or glory of kingship. Sultan Balban used to sit here, and I served him. I have not yet abandoned the fear and reverence for that ruler in my heart. This palace was built by Balban when he was Khan, and it belongs to him, his sons, and his relatives.”
- These words deeply impressed the nobles and the people of Delhi.
2. Policy Achievements: Broadening the Base of Power
Jalaluddin adopted a policy of appeasing all Turkish nobles. He did not depose all Turks from power but appointed trustworthy individuals to key positions in the administration.
Malik Chhajju, Balban’s nephew, was appointed as the governor of Kara Manikpur.
Fakhruddin continued as the Kotwal (chief of police) of Delhi, while Khwaja Khatir retained the position of Wazir (prime minister).
The Sultan bestowed titles upon his sons: the eldest was given the title of Khan-i-Khanan, the second was titled Arkali Khan, and the third was given the title of Qadr Khan.
His younger brother was granted the title of Yaghrash Khan and made Ariz-i-Mamalik (chief of the military department).
Jalaluddin elevated his nephews Alauddin and Almas Beg to high positions and appointed his relative Ahmad Chap as Amir-i-Hajib (chief chamberlain).
Through his actions, Jalaluddin introduced a new concept of governance that was fundamentally based on goodwill and the support of all communities.
He avoided unnecessary interference and abandoned cruel policies in governance. Regarding his policies, Barani wrote, "He believed in a policy of not harming even an ant."
He abhorred bloodshed and sought a peaceful life. A devout Muslim, he opposed the policy of forcibly converting Hindus to Islam or humiliating them.
While debating with his close associate Ahmad Chap, he supported the Hindus’ right to idol worship, propagate their religion, and perform their rituals.
3. Suppression of Revolts
Malik Chhajju’s Rebellion
In 1290 CE, Malik Chhajju, the governor of Kara-Manikpur, revolted. He assumed the title of Sultan Mughisuddin, issued coins in his name, and had the khutbah (Friday sermon) read in his honor. The governor of Awadh, Hatim, supported Malik Chhajju in this rebellion.
With a massive army, Malik Chhajju began advancing towards Delhi via Badaun. In Badaun, Malik Bahadur and Alam Ghazi joined him with their forces.
To suppress the rebellion, Jalaluddin marched with his army, leaving the capital under the charge of his eldest son, Khan-i-Khanan. His second son, Arkali Khan, accompanied him and led the vanguard of the army.
Near Badaun, Arkali Khan defeated and captured Malik Chhajju. Chhajju and his associates were brought before the Sultan in chains, dressed in filthy clothes. Moved by their pitiable state, the Sultan pardoned Malik Chhajju and sent him to Multan. All his companions were either released or forgiven.
Jalaluddin ordered that the defeated nobles be treated with respect. Alauddin was appointed as the new governor of Kara-Manikpur in place of Malik Chhajju.
Jalaluddin’s Generosity
- Jalaluddin was a kind, humble, and compassionate ruler who detested bloodshed. He adopted a lenient policy towards rebels, stating, "I am an old Muslim, and it is not my habit to spill the blood of Muslims."
4. Foiling Conspiracies
A. The Conspiracy of the Nobles
Jalaluddin's liberal policies awakened the ambitions of the nobles. Mistaking his generosity for weakness, they conspired to assassinate Sultan Jalaluddin during a social gathering and install Tajuddin Koohi on the throne.
Tajuddin Koohi was a prominent leader of one of the factions during Balban's reign. When the Sultan learned of this plot, he openly challenged the conspirators. Later, their apologies and flattery appeased him.
The conspirators were merely warned and exiled from the court for one year.
B. The Conspiracy of Siddi Maula
Siddi Maula was a saint who came from Iran and was a follower of Sheikh Fariduddin Ganj Shakar of Ajodhan. He had settled in Delhi during Balban's reign.
Siddi Maula ran a large khanaqah (hospice), feeding thousands of hungry people daily. Many nobles and officials, attracted by his influence, began frequenting the khanaqah, where political discussions started taking place.
The Sultan’s son, Prince Khan-i-Khanan, was also a follower of Siddi Maula. The saint was accused of conspiring, along with two Hindu officers, Hathiyapyak and Niranjan Kotwal, to assassinate the Sultan and make Siddi Maula the ruler. When the Sultan received this information, Hathiyapyak and Niranjan Kotwal were executed, and Siddi Maula was crushed under elephants.
A few days after Siddi Maula’s death, Jalaluddin's eldest son, Khan-i-Khanan, also passed away.
5. Addressing Disorders: Suppression of Thugs
Jalaluddin extended his liberal approach even to thieves and thugs. Around 1,000 criminals engaged in theft, robbery, and murder were arrested in Delhi.
Instead of punishing them, the Sultan placed them on a boat and sent them toward Bengal.
6. Responding to Attacks: Mongol Invasions
To protect against the Mongols, Jalaluddin appointed Arkali Khan on the borders of Sunam, Dipalpur, and Multan.
During Jalaluddin's reign, the Mongols, led by Abdullah, attacked in 1292 CE but were defeated.
A friendly treaty was subsequently established between Abdullah and Sultan Jalaluddin. The Sultan referred to Abdullah as his son, and the Mongols decided to retreat without further conflict.
However, sometime later, Halaku's grandson, Ulugh, launched an invasion. Later, Ulugh Khan, along with 4,000 of his followers, embraced Islam and decided to settle in India.
The Sultan granted them permission to stay in India, providing them with accommodation, stipends, and official positions.
Jalaluddin even married one of his daughters to Ulugh. These Mongols later became known as "Neo-Muslims," and the area where they settled is still famously called Mongolpuri.
Ahmed Chap’s Criticism
- Critique: “If a ruler cannot take strict decisions, he should abdicate his throne.”
- Jalaluddin’s Response: “It is true; idol-worshippers pass right in front of my house with drums and trumpets, and my heart weeps at the sight.”
- He further remarked: “I have never killed any muhaddi (those who deny the oneness of God). What face will I show to Allah on Judgment Day?”
A. Campaign of Ranthambore
- Location: Presently located in the Sawai Madhopur district of Rajasthan, Ranthambore is one of the most strategically important and historic hill forts, surrounded by the Aravalli hills.
- Ruler: At that time, Hammir Dev, a notable ruler, strengthened the Chauhan Rajputs, making them a formidable power.
- Jalaluddin advanced towards Ranthambore, capturing the fort of Jhain en route and destroying temples.
- Upon reaching Ranthambore, he was deterred by its formidable defenses and abandoned his plan to conquer the fort.
- His statement: “The hair of a single Muslim is more precious to me than ten such forts,” signified his decision to retreat without further conflict.
- Jalaluddin later attacked Mandaur, bringing it under the dominion of Delhi.
B. Campaigns Led by Alauddin Khilji
- Background: Alauddin Khilji (Ali Gurshasp), nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin, was appointed as the governor of Kara-Manikpur. Over time, he became central to the political activities of the Sultanate.
- Influenced by Malik Chhajju, Alauddin realized that wealth was essential for a successful rebellion. To amass resources, he led two military campaigns—one against Bhilsa and another against Devagiri.
a. Campaign Against Bhilsa
- Objective: With the Sultan’s permission, Alauddin attacked Bhilsa (in present-day Madhya Pradesh), capturing it successfully.
- Outcome:
- He looted vast wealth and sent a portion to the Sultan in Delhi.
- Pleased with Alauddin’s success, the Sultan appointed him as the governor of both Kara-Manikpur and Awadh.
- The success of this campaign fueled Alauddin’s ambition for power and wealth, as he eyed the throne of Delhi.
b. Campaign Against Devagiri
- Background: During the Bhilsa campaign, Alauddin learned about the wealth and power of Devagiri, a prosperous southern kingdom.
- Strategy:
- He sought the Sultan’s permission to attack Chanderi but secretly planned to raid Devagiri.
- In 1296 CE, with 8,000 select cavalrymen, Alauddin marched under the pretense of heading to Chanderi but diverted towards Devagiri.
- Ruler of Devagiri:
- Ramachandra Dev, a skilled and courageous king, had expanded his kingdom by conquering Malwa and Mysore. His administration promoted trade and agriculture, making Devagiri a wealthy and flourishing state.
- Execution of the Campaign:
- Alauddin appointed Malik Ala-ul-Mulk as his representative in Kara and proceeded via Chanderi to reach Ellichpur, near Devagiri’s northern border.
- Spreading rumors that he was seeking employment in the Telangana region after a fallout with his uncle, Alauddin avoided resistance.
- Upon reaching Devagiri, he launched a surprise attack, catching King Ramachandra off guard.
- Alauddin spread false information that his army was merely the vanguard of a 20,000-strong main force arriving from Delhi.
- After a sudden and devastating raid, Alauddin looted immense wealth and returned triumphantly.
The Assassination of Jalaluddin
When Alauddin was returning to Kara-Manikpur after looting Devagiri, Jalaluddin was in Gwalior. In Gwalior, he received news about his nephew (Alauddin)'s secret campaign in the Deccan and the wealth he had acquired.
Ahmad Chap warned the Sultan about Alauddin's ambitions and advised him to stop at Chanderi. However, the Sultan ignored Ahmad Chap’s advice and went to Delhi. Alauddin reached Kara-Manikpur without any hindrance.
A few days later, Alauddin wrote a letter to his brother Almas Beg (Ulugh Khan), who was in the Sultan’s court, apologizing for his southern campaign and promising to hand over all the wealth to Jalaluddin. However, he stipulated that the Sultan must come to Kara-Manikpur himself.
He also warned that if the Sultan did not comply, he would either commit suicide or flee to Bengal. Jalaluddin, moved by emotion, decided to go to Kara-Manikpur.
Jalaluddin traveled to Manikpur via the river route, while his army, led by Ahmad Chap, took the land route. Alauddin crossed the Ganges River from Kara to reach Manikpur, making it difficult for the Sultan's land army to cross the river.
Almas Beg advised Jalaluddin to meet Alauddin alone, as Alauddin might get frightened by the sight of the army. Falling for this advice, Jalaluddin proceeded to meet Alauddin with a few of his nobles.
Before reaching the riverbank, at the request of Almas Beg, Jalaluddin and his nobles disarmed themselves. Alauddin met Jalaluddin at the riverbank and fell at the Sultan's feet.
Jalaluddin lovingly lifted him, embraced him, and, holding his hand, started walking toward the boat. At that moment, on Alauddin's signal, Muhammad Salim attacked the Sultan.
The wounded Sultan fled toward the boat, exclaiming, "Deceitful Alauddin, what have you done?" Shortly afterward, Alauddin's associate Ikhtiyaruddin severed the Sultan's head from his body.
On July 20, 1296 CE, after the assassination of Sultan Jalaluddin, Alauddin was declared the Sultan. The severed head of the Sultan was paraded across the borders of Kara-Manikpur and Awadh. Except for Malik Fakhruddin, all of the Sultan’s companions were killed in this event.
Evaluation of Jalaluddin
Almost all historians agree that Jalaluddin's policy of generosity proved his incompetence as a ruler.
Barani remarked, "Kingship was a deceit for him."
In this regard, Dr. K. S. Lal wrote, "Hardly any individual was as unsuitable for the royal crown as the founder of the Khalji dynasty.
Dr. A. B. Pandey expressed his opinion about Jalaluddin, stating, "Jalaluddin was the first ruler who tried to make generosity the foundation of governance."
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