The Kingship Theory of Shah Jahan

 

The theory of kingship of Shah Jahan serves as a vivid example of both continuity and change within the Mughal Empire. It was based on the concept of divine kingship established by Akbar, but Shah Jahan adapted it with his personal perspective, administrative style, and the political conditions of his era.

1. Support for Divine Kingship

Shah Jahan defined his kingship as a "divine entity." During his reign, the emperor was considered a representative of God on earth. In a letter to the Sultan of Golconda, Shah Jahan explicitly stated, "The emperor is the shadow of God." Shah Jahan's envoy, Khan Alam, conveyed to the Shah of Iran that Shah Jahan was the "God of the earth." This theory reinforced the divine aspect of his authority, enabling him to maintain supremacy over both the subjects and officials.

2. Cultural Glory and Kingship

Shah Jahan's reign is often referred to as a "Golden Age" by historians. This period witnessed a zenith in art, architecture, and cultural activities. Contemporary Sanskrit scholar Panditraj Jagannath regarded Shah Jahan as more capable and virtuous than other rulers. Depicting the emperor of Delhi as "Jagadishwar" (Lord of the Universe) highlights the cultural and religious significance of his kingship.

3. Administrative Structure and Control

Under Shah Jahan, the nobility and mansabdars displayed unwavering loyalty to the emperor. He effectively controlled rebellions and factionalism. While challenges such as Mahabat Khan's revolt and factional rivalries among the mansabdars occasionally surfaced, Shah Jahan successfully maintained his grip over the nobility and strengthened centralized authority.

4. Religious Policy and Relations with the Ulema

Initially, Shah Jahan's religious policy was orthodox. He took steps to appease the ulema and supported Islamic principles. However, under the influence of Dara Shikoh in his later years, a policy of religious tolerance was reintroduced. Despite this, Shah Jahan believed that the emperor stood above religion and should treat all subjects equally.

5. Succession Struggles and the Decline of Kingship

The later years of Shah Jahan's reign were marked by a bitter succession struggle among his sons. The power struggle between Dara Shikoh, Aurangzeb, Murad, and Shuja destabilized the empire and severely damaged the divine concept of kingship. Aurangzeb ultimately dethroned Shah Jahan and imprisoned him, undermining the very idea of divine kingship.

6. Personal Perspective and Absolutism

Shah Jahan regarded himself as the representative of Allah on earth. He demanded absolute obedience from his officials and subjects. According to contemporary European travelers, Shah Jahan exercised his unlimited power with prudence. Historians like Prof. Saxena and Tavernier opine that Shah Jahan's reign was characterized by administrative stability and a just system of governance.

7. Cultural and Political Achievements

Shah Jahan's era is renowned for architectural marvels such as the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid. Travelers like Manucci and Tavernier praised his just rule. They noted that Shah Jahan treated his subjects like a father and prioritized their welfare.

8. Decline of Mughal Kingship and Legacy

The succession disputes and revolts during the later part of Shah Jahan's reign weakened the theory of Mughal kingship. With Aurangzeb's ascension, the empire witnessed an era of rigidity and instability. Nonetheless, Shah Jahan's reign remains a significant period marked by administrative efficiency, cultural prosperity, and affirmation of the divine kingship theory.

Conclusion

Shah Jahan's theory of kingship was an extension of Akbar's policies, blending divine authority, administrative control, and cultural grandeur. However, the succession conflicts in his later years challenged this theory, contributing to the decline of the Mughal Empire. Shah Jahan's kingship stands as a transformative chapter in Indian history, setting new benchmarks in culture, politics, and governance.

The Theory of Kingship of Jahangir

Jahangir not only adopted the divine theory of kingship propounded by his father Akbar but also expanded it further. His concept was that the king is chosen by God, and only the person deemed worthy is elevated to this position. In Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri, he explicitly stated that kingship and governance cannot be granted by rebels or any other force. This ideology was reflected in his major decisions and policies.

Symbolic Importance of Light

Jahangir deepened the divine aspect of kingship by adopting the title Nur-ud-Din and naming his cherished possessions with terms associated with light, such as:

• Naming his queen Nur Mahal and Nur Jahan.
• Naming his favorite horse Nur-e-Asp and his elephant Nur-e-Fil.

This symbolism highlighted the spiritual and emblematic facets of Jahangir’s rule.

Dealing with Rebellions and Protecting Kingship

During Jahangir’s reign, two significant rebellions occurred: the rebellion of Khusrau and the rebellion of Shah Jahan. Jahangir maintained the divine nature of his kingship while dealing with these uprisings.

• Khusrau’s Rebellion: Jahangir suppressed it ruthlessly, perceiving it as a test of his divine power.
• Shah Jahan’s Rebellion: This ended with conditional forgiveness and compliance with royal decrees, demonstrating loyalty to the Mughal kingship and acceptance of the divine principle.

Balancing Tolerance and Orthodoxy

Jahangir adopted Akbar’s policy of Sulh-e-Kul (universal tolerance), while also initially attempting to appease orthodox ulemas.

• Tolerance: Jahangir is regarded in contemporary texts as a follower of Akbar's traditions.
• Control over the Ulemas: Instead of promoting orthodox ideologies, Jahangir maintained control over them.

Justice: A Pillar of Popularity

Jahangir was seen as a just ruler. He hung a chain of justice outside his palace, symbolizing the accessibility of justice. Though it remains debatable whether it was truly available to the common people, it reinforced public trust in law and justice.

Approach Towards Rebel Groups

Jahangir sentenced Sikh Guru Arjan to death for supporting the rebel Khusrau, justifying it under the divine principles of the state and justice. Similarly, other rebellious groups, such as the followers of Shvetambara Jain guru Man Singh, were also punished.

Administrative Decisions and Divine Principles

Jahangir awarded the title of Shah to Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) for his campaigns in the Deccan, emphasizing the superiority of the Mughal Empire’s authority over the southern states. This decision aligned with his divine theory, which regarded the king’s position as God-given and supreme.

Conclusion

Jahangir infused his reign with divine principles and symbolism while preserving Akbar's traditions. Through justice, religious tolerance, and administrative acumen, he solidified his position. His reign, evaluated through contemporary contexts and principles, reflects a blend of divine authority and practical politics, providing stability to the Mughal Empire from a modern perspective.

Kingship Theory of Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb tried to prove himself as an ideal Muslim ruler. But in the seventeenth century, neither was it possible to establish a completely Islamic kingship principle, nor did Aurangzeb. His kingship is reflected in his letters and in his practical policies.

1. Kingship: Divine Gift

He also believed in the divine principle of kingship. But the extent to which he believed the trusteeship in his words to Shahjahan is questionable. Because, ignoring the rebellion of Akbar II and the fatwas of four Maulvis, he considered kingship as a divine gift. How strong the dynastic power had become due to the determined efforts of the Mughal emperors. The success of Aurangzeb also proves that the Mansabdar or Umra did not have the courage to displace the emperor and sit on the throne himself. After Aurangzeb, when the Mughal kingship was in decline and the umrah became powerful, the kingship revolved around someone from the Mughal dynasty. Aurangzeb was jealous of his power and was never ready to share it with anyone. He maintained a certain distance with everyone, because, like Balban, he also knew that 'kingship does not know fraternity'. He grabbed the power by proving this theory 100%. He never trusted anyone and eventually considered even his own sons to be untrustworthy and suffered the consequences.

2. The King: A Divine Instrument

Although Aurangzeb call himself the servant of the Prophet, but he continued to consider himself as a divine instrument, who was selected by God as the emperor. Since, the Mughal emperor was recognized as a divine institution, hence obedience to the emperor was considered a political and religious ritual. Therefore, all the Mughal emperors, including Aurangzeb, considered themselves to be the chosen representatives of God, who had superhuman qualities and who were successful in achieving leadership by divine grace. He had a firm belief that the sure and complete loyalty of his subjects to him is a divine gift, not the gift of Ulama, or Umrah or the basis of any election is responsible for it.

3. Ruler: Trustee of the State

When Shah Jahan declared Aurangzeb's control over the treasury illegal after the war of succession, he was undermining the principle of Mughal kingship by declaring him a 'traitor'. But, in his reply, Aurangzeb, while defining his principle of Kingship, wrote that the property and funds of the state are only for the benefit of the community. He was declaring himself as the 'trustee' or custodian of the community with the right to control the fund. He writes to his father that taking possession of other's property is against Muslim belief. The royal property and funds are meant for the welfare of the people only, the state is not a hereditary personal property. He said that just as the Supreme Father is the protector of the entire human world, similarly the ruler as his representative is only a 'PRAJA PALAK' as a guardian (trustee).

4. Policy: Emphasis on Zawabits

Aurangzeb wanted to prove himself as an ideal Muslim ruler by running the state on the basis of Shariat, but he did not compromise with the power and integrity of the kingship. He did not accept the submission of the Caliph or any other ruler. For political reasons, he also punished the Muslim rulers. To broadcast his political power, he fought with the Muslims of the South in the same way as with the Marathas. Hindu and Muslim soldiers fought together in these wars. Much has been said and written on Aurangzeb's religious beliefs, but it is also true that, as much importance Aurangzeb gave to Shari'a or Muslim Law, he also gave it to Zawabits. He kept the Ulama under control and never compromised on the power and integrity of the monarchy. He was also insistent on fair justice like the rest of the Mughal emperors.

5. Kingship in Practice : Great Riddle :  Zinda Pir/living saint : Modest Clerk

The character of Aurangzeb is a great puzzle. He was called 'Zinda Pir" because he was such a great 'Namazi" that he did not forget to offer Namaz even in the middle of the war. He earned money for his personal expenses by sewing caps and copying the Quran, before his death he had four rupees two annas for sewing caps, while he had three hundred and five rupees from the copy of the Quran. Aurangzeb's lifestyle may be fine for a saint but not for one who has to take political decisions. Aurangzeb has been tirelessly described as a harsh administrator, who did not deal with himself or with those close to him. But this obstinacy of Aurangzeb reflects the mind of Philip II of Europe who was certainly very diligent but in mending old locks. Aurangzeb not only wasted time but also destroyed the happiness and peace of the empire. He practically could not take good decision in Rajput policy, South policy and religious policy.

Anyhow, in the last days of this great emperor, his kingdom had become decadent and his successors, who were not as capable as him, completely failed to control this decadent trend.

Akbar's principle of Kingship

Inspiration: The need for building an All-India empire

1.    Secularization of supreme power

2.    To be fair to all

3.    Tolerance towards non-muslims

4.    Purpose of public welfare

Components of Akbar's kingship

1.    Mongol tradition of Central Asia

2.    Timurid tradition

3.    Iranian tradition

4.    India's Liberal Environment

5.    Palace atmosphere

 

Features of Akbar's theory of Kingship

1.    Padshah : Symbol of Permanence

A clear and detailed explanation of Mughal kingship during Akbar's period by Abul Fazl in Akbarnama. According to Abul Fazl, 'Padshah' is made up of two words 'Pad' and 'Shah' . 'Pad' means 'permanence' and 'shah' means 'lord' . This shows that the padshah is a symbol of ownership and stability.

2.    Monarchy: The Alternative to Anarchy

Abul Fazl, the divine form of kingship was in fact an alternative to political anarchy, "If there was no monarchy, the storm of unrest would never have calmed down, nor selfish ambition would have ended the human race, burdened with anarchy and senses, would sink into the abyss of decline. The prosperity of this big market of the world would be destroyed and the whole world would become barren."

3Farre-Izzdi ' or Divine Light

According to Abul Fazl, ‘The kingdom is the ray of the sun emanating from the divine and the universal illuminator.’ He refers to it as ‘Farre- ijdi’ or divine light. This 'Divine light' was directly transmitted by God to the emperors. It is because of being present in the emperors that people remain submissive and devoted to him with complete reverence. He used to say that 'Special grace continues to flow from the sun to the emperors.’ He showed respect to both the sun and the fire.

4.    Kingship is a gift of god

According to the interpretation of Abul Fazl, kingship is a gift of God and He does not bestow it on any person unless the  person has a thousand great qualities. Hence ; According to the above explanation, the position of the emperor does not come from belonging to a particular lineage or abundance of wealth. But it is the result of God's selection of a worthy and virtuous person.

5.    Essentials for kingship

Abul Fazl said that , the emperor had to be paternal towards his people with equal affection; They should be a generous, ever-increasing faith, worship and devotion to God. Apart from this, other important qualities, the inclusion of which Abul Fazl considered necessary in the personality of the padshah. They were - pure intellect, fair approach to justice, equal treatment to relatives and strangers, God-given courage, hard work, generosity and tolerance, equal treatment towards all religions, judicious decisions, suppression of unreasonable desires and impulses, character and generous. To associate with individuals and to discuss and consult with them, not to be influenced by others quickly and to have parental concern towards the subjects.

6.    National Aspiration of Sulah-i-Kul

In simple sense, the policy of Sulah-i- Kul means peace for all and harmony among all. The policy of the sulah-i-kul was based on a better understanding of the composite culture of India by Akbar. Abul Fazl compared the four elements of creation- fire, air, water and land with the four elements of society, the army, the merchant, the intelligentsia and the productive class and talked about unity among them . At the same time he tried to get a well organized administrative class which is reflected in his Rajput policy.

7. Infallibility Decree (1579)

In 1579 AD , after being read 'Mahazar', Akbar accepted himself to be the head of both religion and state. At the suggestion of Shaikh Mubarak, Akbar decided to become Mujtahid. He was to act as the supreme arbiter in religious matters. In September, 1579, Shaikh Mubarak produced a document in his own handwriting which was drafted in such a way that Akbar became the supreme arbiter in civil and ecclesiastical matters. Akbar was to act as the Imam-i-Adil or the final interpreter of Muslim Law. This document was signed by Makhdum-ul-Mulk, Shaikh Abdunnabi, Shaikh Mubarak and others. Dr. Smith calls it the “infallibility decree.” This made the power of the Ulema secondary compared to that of the emperor.

Thus we can say that in the period of Akbar, The Mughal monarchy reached its zenith. He is bestowed with adjectives like absolute, unlimited, supremely holy and divine. He was above all classes and there was never any external or foreign pressure on him.

Significance of Akbar's Kingship

1.     Incorporation of new elements

2.     Broad framework of governance

3.     Defining Fundamental Principles of Governance

4.     Setting high ideals

5.     Establishment of secular element in governance

6.     Building the intellectual base of governance

7.     Association of rajputs

8.     King's highest spiritual physical condition

Babur's theory of kingship

When Babur came in India, the effect of kingship theory of Turk - Mongol begins and to be seen in the nature of the state and the concept of kingship. However, even in this period, the kingship is visible only in divine and autocratic form. The first task of the Mughals was to establish both respect and administrative fear among the conquered people and for this task the all-powerful recognition of the ruler was necessary.

1.     Divine principle of Kingship

Being a descendant of Timur, the Mughal emperor was also entitled to accept the divine principle of kingship according to tradition. Timur himself writes in his memoirs that whenever the God bestows sovereignty on a person, he also bestows him with special prestige and discretion, so that through this the human remains obedient to him. This virtue is a ray of divine majesty, which shines on the emperor. It is just a reflection of a just God.

2.     Bear the title of Padshah

After conquering Kabul, Babur assumed the title of Padshah in 1508 AD. He writes in his autobiography that till that time he addressed to mirza But later he ordered that the people would call him the Padshah. There were many reasons to assume the title of Padshah, the first humiliation of losing Fergana. Secondly, he was trying to declare his supremacy among all the Timur dynasty as well. Third, he was trying to prove his superiority over his contemporaries.

3.     Belief in the hereditary right of the Emperor

Babur believed in the hereditary right of the emperor. In his letter to Abusayed regarding the succession of Badakhshan, he discusses the hereditary rights. In 1529 AD, both things become clear from the letter suggesting to his son. First, he was looking at Humayun as his successor, hence giving advice for this purpose. Secondly, this letter sheds enough light on the kingship of Babur.

4.     Emphasis on the importance of activism for Emperor

In 1529 he wrote a letter to his son Humayun. In this letter, light is thrown on his ideas related to the principle of kingship. He writes that “there is no greater bondage than the kingdom. Solitary or lazy life is not proper for emperors. That is, the emperor should be active. He advises Humayun that he should do official work in consultation with qualified, experienced nobles and his well- wishers. He suggests to Humayun to order the nobles to appear before him twice for state work.

5.     Emphasis on social behavior

Accepting the supremacy of the dynasty and the kingship, he used to openly meet with the rich in social dealings. Many such occasions are mentioned in his autobiography when he used to get unconscious while indulging in mingling with the Umrah. This was natural to reduce the pride of the ruler.

6.     The division of the empire under the influence of Timur and the Mongol system

To the influence of Timur and the Mongol system, Babur instructed Humayun to divide the empire after him. He fixed the ratio of Humayun and Kamran as six to five, but he decided against his two other sons, Askari and Hindal. Nothing has been written in his autobiography regarding this. Perhaps because of Kamran's fiery nature, he thought it necessary to fix his proportion.

7.     Emphasis on tolerance

Babur to Humayun is worth noting . “People of every religion live in the land of India. Alhamdolillah, the kingdom of this country has been handed over to you. Do justice by removing discrimination from your heart. Especially don't sacrifice a cow. With this you will win the hearts of the people of India and people will join the kingdom. Do not demolish the places of worship of those living in the Sultanate. Do justice to such an extent that the people are happy with their king and the king with the people. Islam will move forward softly, not by the sword of oppression. Turn a blind eye to Shia -Sunni conflicts or else Islam will be weakened .

Thus the supremacy of the ruler, dynasty-glory, hereditary succession, division of empire among sons, umrah and ruling in consultation with his well - wishers were the main considerations of his kingship. Later on, Sheikh Abul Fazl has written it in this way - "In him the eight principles of ruling the world were completely present. First high fortune second high courage Third power to conquer the world Fourth ability to handle country Fifth effort to improve cities Sixth goodness of comman man in heart Seventh advice to keep the soldiers happy and Eighth strength to stop the army from spreading destruction".

Sikandar Lodi's theory of kingship

In order to increase the power of the Sultan and to bring the nobles under control, Sikandar adopted a strict policy. For this he changed the form of kingship itself. His aim was to establish the autocratic power of the Sultan.

1.    Redefining kingship

When Bahlol's son Sikandar became the ruler, he not only had to redefine kingship, but also had to demonstrate his ability and superiority by demonstrating power against a large number of Afghan chieftains and his brothers. For example, he defeated Alam Khan and Azam Humayun, then along with the display of fraternity, as well as forgiving the Sultan's superiority and generosity, returned their territories to them. Sent a proposal to accept submission to another of his brother, Barbak. The message was clear, he is the Sultan of Delhi, Barbak could have lived under him only as the ruler of Jaunpur. But this was not acceptable to the Afghan tendencies of Barbak, so he was defeated in battles and forced to surrender. But, showing a sense of fraternity, the Sultan along with pardon to this brother also restored him there as the governor of Jaunpur.

2.    Preferring kingship over fraternity

Sikandar had a clear belief that if there is a question of choice between kingship and fraternity, then clearly the choice of kingship should be made. Bahlol had provided a veil of fraternity to the monarchy, but Sikandar used it only as a tool to satisfy the Afghan sentiments of fraternity to an extent, so that the stability of the state would not be adversely affected. Rest he never allowed fraternity to limit the divine nature of kingship. During the reign of his father and the previous ruler, the state had become strong, stable and disciplined by thirty-eight years of peace. Therefore, it was natural for him to proceed further.

3.    The glory and prestige of the Sultan's office

Ultimately, he forced the Afghan nobles to accept the superior position of the Sultan in order to raise the level of glory and prestige of the Sultan's office. However, he continued to express his attachment to Afghan democratic traditions. Sikandar Lodi began to sit on the throne, not following his father. So he made it clear that he was the sultan and not the chieftain or tribal leader elected on the basis of merit among the members of the same tribe. Therefore, he had a monopoly on the throne, no one had the right to participate in it.

4.    Rules for Government orders

The sultans of Delhi, made a general rule for his amirs, provinces and other state officials as to how to accept the state decrees and orders with welcome. It was obligatory for every Amir to whom the Farman was sent, six miles ahead of his appointed place of posting, with full faith and respect to accept the Farman on his forehead .

5.    Discipline for the Amirs

The amirs were given the strict impression of administration that they were the servants of the sultan and not the amirs with equal rights, whose position and authority, appointment, transfer and removal depended entirely on the will of the sultan. The Jagirdars and Heads of Departments had to submit the statement of accounts in regular 'Diwane Vizarat'. No leniency was shown in cases of corruption, mismanagement, misbehavior and bribery etc. Rigorous discipline had become the motto of the government.

6.    Intelligence system

With a definite intention to control the Umra or the wealthy class, he established an intelligence system like Balban and emphasized on collecting all the information of the state. On the basis of his information, he wanted to prove like Balban by surprising the amirs that the Sultan had infinite supernatural powers due to being the shadow and representative of Allah. Therefore, he also wanted to restore the divine form of kingship by following Balban's intelligence.

7.    Fair justice

Like Balban, he considered it the sacred duty of the Sultan to provide impartial justice. He understood the importance of military force just like Balban. He also formed the Central Army and was conscious of their welfare. He was successful in giving justice and order, security and protection to the people. He was keen to prove the same by being revered as guardian Sultan. That Just as God provides protection to the living beings, in the same way the king also has to discharge these duties as his representative .

Thus, as far as possible, he respected the sentiments of the Afghan nobles but kept them under such control as was necessary for the security of the empire. With the change in his kingship principle, he exercised a strict policy towards the nobles, and succeeded in bringing them into discipline, but as soon as the power weakened, the displeasure of the amirs began to be visible at the time of his successor, who was helpful to Babur .