In
the fourteenth century, as Mongol power weakened by the fall of the ruling
house and growing discontent among the Chinese. The Chinese never forgot that
they were subjugated by a barbaric conqueror. There was a rebellion to put an
end to the external and internal oppressors and the Mongol rule came to an end.
Leader of the rebellion Zhu yuan Zhang II had been a poor farmer and monk and
became the founder of a new Ming dynasty. During his reign of about 300 years,
China got rulers like 'name and virtue' because the word Ming itself gives an
impression of talent. This regime has been called 'Mature Feudalism' during
which China was consolidated under the leadership of North China.
Ming society
A- Social Structure
1. Scholar
This
was not a born class and any person could become a scholar after getting
education. It is inevitable that to reach this class, people had to do rigorous
study for years. The main work of these scholars was study and meditation. Some
people attained high royal positions by attaining the title of Chu Zhen.
2. Farmer
Farmers
traditionally practiced farming. There was no change in it for centuries. The
government was not particularly interested in this. It was evident that this
class was the biggest burden of the society and the farmers were often poor.
3. Artisan
Artisans
were relatively organized. There were organizations according to their
occupation which can be called 'guilds’. These organizations used to fix the
price and work to deliver the goods to the market. Home industry was mostly
effective. There was no arrangement for mass production. Guilds also dealt with
business matters. Every artisan was a member of some organization and was
dependent on it. Had such a powerful institution developed, far-reaching
changes could have taken place in production and distribution. But that could
not happen and inertia persisted for centuries.
4. Merchant
Merchant
people were more prosperous as usual, but the path of their development was
also blocked because until the production did not increase and buyers did not
increase in the society and the purchasing power did not increase, the nature
of business could not change much.
5. Salaried
employee
The
soldiers and the working class were also not capable as their salaries were low
and they depended on the wishes of the rulers.
B- Social Traditions
1. Family
The
family was the most important unit like in India. In a patriarchal society, the
oldest man in the family was like the king of the family. Other members were subordinate
to him. Family property was tied to the joint family. The respect-worship of
ancestors strengthened this system. The condition of women was deplorable. The
family pattern remained the same for centuries.
2. Social
Responsibility
For
the nation in China 'Kuo chia ' use of the word signifies that the nation was
considered as one family and as the father had the status of the family in the
same way as the king in the nation. In China, since ancient times, there was a
lot of emphasis on duties. Therefore, the king also had duties which he often
did not violate. So, he could not be as autocratic as the rulers of other
countries. Because there was an unwritten constitution in the form of
traditions. Chinese traditions acted as a check on the monarchy. The philosophy
of governance was based on the ideas of Confucius. The system of government was
spread from the center through the provinces to the villages. Due to running
almost the same way for thousands of years, there was a speed like automation
to an extent, but there was no effort to improve it, nor was there any
possibility in those conditions.
C- Social characteristics
1. Stratification
in society
Although
there was no varna or caste system in Chinese society, there was stratification
like all other societies in the world. Most of the society was farmers and
artisans. Apart from these two there were merchants and soldiers and at the top
was the scholar. It was not a community determined by birth. Anyone could rise
above talent and perseverance.
2. Social mobility
This
was possible because the education system was comprehensive and anyone could
get education up to village-district-province and state level by passing
various examinations. The one who obtained the final examination chu-jen became
a contender for a state post. Such an education system was probably not
available in any other country in the world. This system had only one
limitation, it was a closed system in which only traditional education was
available, the entry of new ideas was negligible.
3. Fall of
Feudalism in Society
Feudalism
began to decline in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries and urban uprisings began
to emerge. Due to the oppression of the zamindars, peasant revolts started. A
group called Tung Lin, which was called 'Community of Honest People', reformed
the governance started applying pressure. He did not talk of any revolutionary
change or mass movement - just emperor and a 'good’ bureaucracy. But it did not
get much success. Thus the possibility of 'correction from above' was lost and
'explosion from below' remained the only way. In 1628, a peasant war swept
across China and the Ming Empire faltered. Manchu feudal lords accepted foreign
domination by committing treason to save their property.
Ming Culture
1. Idea and Value
- Ancient Tradition
The
culture of China was governed by the traditional values and beliefs. China was
influenced by the ideas of Confucius, Lao Tze and Buddha.
Confucius:
Emphasis on temporality
China's
most influential ideology and ethics was based on the teachings of Confucius.
In the 6th century BC he compiled and organized China's then-reciprocal
policies and made rules for every aspect of life. His main concern was secular
life and its betterment, so his teachings were related to practical life. He
did not pay attention to the transcendental life etc. He kept human at the
center of his thoughts and suggested ways to organize the mutual relations
between human beings, as if man can live only with the cooperation of other human
beings, therefore everyone should take care. For this, he also gave necessary
instructions to the administration and called moral education mandatory for
employees and officers as well. Considering political and personal life as
interdependent, he marked the importance of cooperation and coordination
between the two.
LaoTze
According
to this, that government is the best which governs the least. These thoughts
gave the Chinese people the strength to face sorrows and difficulties. These
ideas were opposed to Confucius's idea of God and heaven. Later, due to the
mysticism of these ideas, pomp -witchcraft- priesthood was entered.
Emphasis
on materiality
Some
important philosophers in the last days of rule were Bang Chuan Shan, Hwan
Tsing Si and Wu Human emerged. The essence of his philosophy was that he
preferred materiality (chi) over spirituality (li). He was not only a thinker
but he also fought against the Manchu conquerors.
Buddhism:
The Middle Way
Buddhism
also readily accepted in China. In this too, like the way of Tao , the emphasis
was on the middle way. But Buddhism differed from the two Chinese schools in
other respects. But it is the uniqueness of Chinese society that it coordinated
the three different types of ideas in such a way that they were followed
without any special conflict.
2. Science and
Literature
The
Ming was a time of great urban, mercantile, and artistic vitality, with
significant technological advances in silk weaving, printing and publishing,
including the invention of moveable type. The prince-mathematician Zhu Zǎiyù
(1536- 1611), invented the 'equal temperament scale', a tuning system for
musical instruments, in 1584, at least a decade before Euro- peans devised a
similar method. It was during the Ming that the physician Li Shizhēn compiled
the Compendium of Materia Medica, the basis for traditional Chinese medicine.
It includes prescriptions for more. The continued growth of a literate middle
class also saw a flourishing of fiction. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms was
published during this time; its mix of history, legend and fantasy. Another
great Ming novel was the sixteenth-century Journey to the West, aka Monkey,
which fictionalizes and injects super-natural elements into the story of the
Tang monk Xuan Zang’s journey to India to bring back original Buddhist texts.
https://youtube.com/clip/UgkxwffDlrZVX8bC2X8c_N4BSG18dw72jPX8?si=m0DIVmmIStvY56GS
Since
the method of printing was difficult and expensive, not all books could be
printed and many were left with only manuscripts. Yet China had many personal
and government libraries. The main thing in this area was the beginning of
translation of foreign literature.
3. Architecture:
Refinement of the Balance of Beauty and Utility
The
main progress in the Ming period was in the field of architecture.
Extraordinary progress was made in the construction of palaces, shrines,
bridges, canals, and government buildings. Peking was made the new capital and
for its protection Four walls were built for this. The capital was given the
artistic look that still exists today. Beautiful buildings and sculptures
influenced by Buddhism filled the whole environment with a grand and distinct
aesthetic. Beauty was not the only inspiration. The famous China Wall and the
Great Canal were also strengthened from the point of view of utility. Chinese
painting holds its own special importance in the world. The Ming period did not
develop any distinctive style of its own, but the traditional art was further
refined.
4. ART
Drawing
Ink
wash painting is a type of Chinese ink brush painting which uses washes of
black ink. The Chinese script is also pictorial. That's why it also has shapes.
They can be coordinated well in pictures. There was also development in the
field of calligraphy. With the establishment of an academy of painting in the
capital, organized efforts could be made in this direction. There was not much
progress in terms of creativity and originality in painting, but the technique
became more sophisticated and the importance of technical skill increased.
Chinese
pottery
All
over the world, a special type of pottery is called China clay. Behind it is
the history of centuries and the power of excellent production. Even in the
Ming period, very beautiful porcelain utensils were made everyday use and also
decorative things. Their specialty was very lightness, extraordinary brightness,
and fine painting, these are excellent examples of handicraft. They had a
special place in the construction of China. China's porcelain was the best in
the whole world until the porcelain utensils of France took their place.
5. Urbanization
and Impact
The
distinction between what was town and country was blurred in Ming China, since
suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within
the walls of a city. Not only was the blurring of town and country evident, but
also of socio-economic class in the traditional four occupations, since
artisans sometimes worked on farms in peak periods, and farmers often travelled
into the city to find work during times of dearth. A variety of occupations
could be chosen or inherited from a father's line of work. Merchant bankers was
engaging in a proto-banking system involving notes of exchange. Virtually every
town had a brothel where female and male prostitutes could be had. Pederasty
with a teenage boy was seen as a mark of elite status, regardless of sodomy
being repugnant to sexual norms. Public bathing became much more common than in
earlier periods.
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