The 17th and 18th centuries in Europe were marked by continuous wars, territorial conflicts, and power balance politics. In this context, the great Russian reformer and emperor Peter the Great (1672-1725) decisively influenced Russia’s foreign policy. The primary objectives of his foreign policy were:
- To transform Russia into a powerful maritime force.
- To expand Russia’s territory through military and naval strength.
Russia’s major challenge was that, despite being a vast empire, it lacked significant maritime routes for trade and military operations. Recognizing this issue, Peter focused his policy in two major directions—toward the Black Sea in the south and the Baltic Sea in the west.
Conquest of the Black Sea and the Azov Port
Access to the Black Sea was essential for Russia’s maritime power. At that time, the Ottoman Empire dominated the region, controlling the Black Sea entirely and restricting Russia’s access to the outside world. Peter saw this challenge as an opportunity and launched the Azov Campaigns (1695-96). Fortunately for Peter, the Ottoman Empire was declining at this time.
Victory at Azov (1696)
The first campaign ended in failure, but in 1696, Peter achieved a decisive victory at Azov, opening Russia’s first maritime route toward the Black Sea. However, this was only a partial success, as the passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean was still controlled by the Ottomans. This prevented Russia from becoming a fully-fledged naval power.
Subsequently, Peter planned to capture more territories from the Ottomans, but his efforts failed. In the Pruth River Campaign (1711), the Russian army suffered a severe defeat against the Ottomans, forcing Russia to retreat and abandon Azov.
Despite this setback, Peter learned that Russia needed a stronger naval and military force. After this, he shifted his focus entirely to the Baltic Sea in the west, which provided Russia the opportunity to establish itself as a major European power.
The Baltic Sea and the Great Northern War (1700-1721)
To gain control over the Baltic Sea, the Great Northern War (1700-1721) was fought. Russia allied with Denmark, Poland, and Saxony against Sweden, which was a dominant military power in the region. Sweden sought to maintain its supremacy over the Baltic and considered the sea its private lake.
Swedish Strength and Early Russian Defeat
Sweden’s young and bold ruler, Charles XII (1682-1718), inflicted several defeats on Russia and its allies in the early stages of the war.
Battle of Narva (1700)
Peter’s army was ill-prepared for war, and the Swedish army crushed Russia in the Battle of Narva. However, instead of decisively ending the war, Charles XII diverted his attention to Poland and other military campaigns, giving Peter the chance to reorganize his army.
Reorganization of the Russian Army and Victory in the Baltic
Peter modernized the Russian army and navy, implemented European-style military strategies, and established Saint Petersburg (1703), which later became Russia’s new capital. In 1704, Russia recaptured Narva and gradually strengthened its position in the Baltic.
Battle of Poltava (8 July 1709): Russia’s Decisive Victory
Charles XII launched another attack on Russia, planning to march toward Moscow in 1708. However, due to the harsh Russian winter, food shortages, and Russia’s scorched-earth policy, the Swedish army weakened. On 8 July 1709, Russia decisively defeated Sweden in the Battle of Poltava. Charles XII fled the battlefield and sought refuge in Turkey. This battle marked Russia’s emergence as a major European power.
The Treaty of Nystad (10 September 1721) and Russia’s Rise
The Great Northern War ended with the Treaty of Nystad (1721), granting Russia control over vast territories in the Baltic region. Russia acquired Estonia, Latvia, and parts of Finland, while Sweden’s dominance ended. Russia officially became a "Great Power" in Europe, and Saint Petersburg was declared the new capital.
Evaluation of Peter the Great: Reformer or Autocrat?
Reforms and Modernization
- Military Modernization – Adopted European military strategies.
- Naval Expansion – Established Russia’s first powerful navy.
- New Capital – Built Saint Petersburg as a western-style capital.
- Administrative Reforms – Developed a centralized bureaucracy in Russia.
- Religious Reforms – Curtailed the power of the Church to strengthen the Russian state.
Autocracy and Brutality
- Arrested and tortured his own son, Alexis, who later died.
- Used excessive violence to suppress opposition.
- Some historians describe him as a “Barbaric Genius.”
Conclusion
Peter the Great’s era marked a turning point in Russian history. He transformed Russia into a modern European power with a strong military and navy. Although his rule was highly authoritarian and brutal, his reforms laid the foundation for Russia’s rise as a global power.
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