Lanepool – Great Political Economist
A- LAND REVENUE REFORMS
Before
the time of Allauddin Khilji, there was no significant change in the land
revenue system, it continued to be run in its old form by the old people.
Alauddin was the first Sultan who brought fundamental changes in the financial
structure of the Sultanate and increased the intervention of the central
government in the villages. Muhammad Habib sees it as a rural revolution.
His
objectives behind land revenue reforms were –
1. To increase the income of the state
2. To break the power of people to rebel by crippling
them economically.
3. Revenue had to be increased to meet the expenses of
the army.
4. To make such arrangements that the burden of the rich
people does not fall on the poor.
For
this he made some laws –
1. The person who does farming should pay half the
produce as tax on the basis of measurement and per biswa yield.
2. All people of the village pay tax at the same rate
3. Khuts, Muqaddam and Chaudharis should also pay their
full rent like ordinary farmers (Balahar).
Allauddin
completed his plan in four stages.
·
First stage
First
of all, by cancelling the land grants i.e. Milk, Inam, Waqf, he converted all
the lands into Khalisa lands and started paying cash salaries to the officers.
However, grants continued in limited quantities.
·
Second stage
After
this he got the land measured and fixed the revenue on the income of the actual
land. The revenue privileges of the intermediaries i.e. Khut, Muqaddam and
Chaudharis, Huquq-i-Khuti (obtained from the state) and Kismat-i-Khuti
(obtained from the farmers) were abolished.
·
Third stage
The
tax was imposed on the basis of average production and was increased to fifty
percent. taxes were collected harshly.
·
Fourth stage
Despite
the harshness, some part of the land revenue remained outstanding. To solve
this problem, the Sultan established a special official, Diwan-i-Mustakharaj.
Tax
collection officer
With
these laws, the government established direct relations with the farmers for
the first time. Government employees now reached every village. These were
Muhassils (demanders of tribute), Amils (revenue collector), Gumashtas(agents),
Mutasarrifs (auditors or accounts), uhdadaran-i-dafatir ( persons in charge of
offices), Nawisindas (clerks). They worked at the district level but their
reach was in the villages. The basic record was the bihi(register) of the
parwari or village-accountant.
Positive
consequences
1. Establishment of close and complementary relations
between village and city
2. Internal reorganization of the Sultanate
3. Model for later Shershah and Akbar
Negative
consequences
1. Agriculture is no longer profitable for the farmers.
This revenue system was very anti-farmer.
2. Fifty percent of the land revenue and the burden of
grazing, ghari and jizya was going to break the back of the farmer.
B- MARKET CONTROL SYSTEM
Alauddin's
market reforms were done in accordance with administrative and military needs.
Alauddin's market reforms and their effectiveness were a surprise for his
contemporaries. Medieval rulers were expected to ensure that the essentials of
life, especially food grains, were available to people living in cities at reasonable
prices. This was because cities were considered the driving forces of power and
authority throughout the Islamic world.
Objective
1.
Barani says that
Alauddin Khilji carried out market reforms because he wanted to prepare a huge
army after the siege of Delhi by the Mongols, but in case of paying normal
salaries to his soldiers, all his funds would have become empty.
2.
According to
Barani, another reason for market reforms was Alauddin's policy of making
Hindus resourceless so that they could not even entertain the thought of
revolting.
3.
Dr. B. P. Saxena -
Alauddin was inspired by the spirit of public welfare and implemented the
market control system. This idea is based on Sheikh Hamiduddin's book Khairat-ul-Majlis.
4.
Dr. P. Saran and
K. S. Lal - Actually, the market control system was inspired by a kind of
political compulsion.
ECONOMIC REGULATIONS: MARKET REFORMS
Alauddin
organized the following markets in Delhi for various commodities-
A- THE 'MANDI' OR GRAIN MARKET
The
Central Grain Market or Mundi with subsidiary controlled grocers' shops in
every quarter (mohalla) of the city.
1. The First and most difficult Regulation (Zabita)
concerned the fixation of price for all varieties of grain. The price per man
prescribed by the government was as follows : wheat, 7.5 jitals; barley, 4
jitals; rice, 5 jitals ; pulses, 5 jitals etc.
2. The Second Regulation appertained to the appointment
of Malik Qabul Ulugh Khani as controller (shuhna) of the Grain Market.
3. The Third Regulation appertained to the collection of
grain in the royal (sultani) stores.
4. The Fourth Regulation assigned the grain-transport
merchants to Malik Qabul.
5. The Fifth Regulation was a general and stern
prohibition of profiteering.
6. The Sixth Regulation required a deed to be taken from
the administrative and revenue officers of the country to the effect that they
would have the grain delivered by the cultivators to the grain merchants at a
cash price from their fields.
7. According to the Seventh Regulation the Sultan
received daily reports about the Grain Market from three independent sources-
first, from the controller of the market (shuhna-i mandi), second, from the
barids (intelligence officers) and, lastly, from the secret spies (munhis), who
had been appointed.
B- THE SERA-I-ADL
The
Sera-i-Adl (Palace of Justice) was the exclusive, and to a large extent a
subsidized, market for manufactured commodities and merchandise brought from a
long distance, from territories outside the Sultan's dominion and even from
foreign countries. These specified commodities were cloth, sugar, herbs, dry
fruits, butter (rughan-i sutur, ghi) and lamp-oil (rughan-i-chiragh).
1.
The First
Regulation dealt with the establishment of the Sera-i Adl. On the inner side of
the Badaun Gate near the Koshak-i-Sabz (Green Palace), an extensive piece of
land had been lying useless for a long time.
2.
With reference to
the Second Regulation, Barani gives us some items of the official price-list.
3.
The Third
Regulation concerned the registration of merchants. 'The Sultan ordered all
merchants of Delhi, whether Hindus or Muslims, to be registered with the
ministry of commerce (diwan-i-riyasat); and their business was to be regulated.
4.
The Fourth
Regulation appertained to the Multani merchants. The commodities of the
Sera-i-Adl were brought by the regulated merchants from long distances and they
would need a subsidy in case of more costly goods.
C- Markets for horses, slaves and cattle
Four
general Regulations were applicable to these three markets.
1.
Determination of
price according to variety;
2.
Boycott of traders
and capitalists,
3.
Tight control over
brokers
4.
Frequent
investigations by the Sultan.
Horses: The horses accepted for the army were divided into
three categories with the help of experienced horse brokers. First class, 100 to 120 'tanks'; second
class, 80
to 90
'tanks'; Third class, 60
to 70
'tanks'.
Slaves:The price of a female slave for domestic work was
fixed between 5
and 12
tankas, and of a female slave who was needed as a concubine (kanizak-i-kinari)
between 20
and 30
or 40
tankas.
Cattle: Male cattle for breeding purposes (sutur-i-jufti), 3 tankas; cows for
meat, 1
to 2
tankas; cows giving milk, 3 to 4 tankas; female buffalo for milk, 10 to 12 tankas; buffalo
for meat, 5
to 6
tankas.
D- THE GENERAL MARKETS
The
general markets, scattered throughout the city, were under the control of the
ministry of commerce (diwan-i-riyasat). Alauddin did not disturb this
arrangement. But according to Barani, Alauddin with a staff working under him
settled the price according to production-cost (hukm-i-bar- award) for
everything, however insignificant-hats, socks, combs, needles, sugar-cane,
vegetables, pottage, soup, halwa, reuri, varieties of bread, fish,
betel-leaves, colours, areca-nuts, roses and green plants; in fact, of all
things sold in the general markets. The price-list sanctioned by the throne was
given to the ministry of commerce.
Positive
impact
1.
First, it directly
interfered with market forces.
2.
Through this,
Alauddin could create a permanent army with relatively less resources.
3.
Common people also
got the benefit of this market control and the urban population could get other
commodities besides grains at cheaper rates.
4.
Trade as the sale
of grains in rural areas was encouraged.
5.
The food needs of
the urban population were better met; hence the process of urbanization was
also encouraged.
Negative
impact
1. This system took away profit, the basic motivation for
both agriculture and commerce.
2. Under this system, the rural population was exploited
for the benefit of the urban population.
3. Even among the urban population, big traders continued
to get profits. In fact, price control had a negative impact on artisans and
small traders.
4. Fixing the prices of all types of goods encouraged the
Red Tape bureaucracy.
5. At this time, the wages of laborers and salaries of
soldiers were reduced. Due to this their purchasing power decreased. Therefore,
due to reduction in the prices of goods, they did not suffer but the state and
the feudal lords benefited.
Alauddin's
market reforms were very successful in the short term but were of temporary
nature. In the words of Dr. P. Saran, this entire policy was completely
irrational and artificial and was a violation of all economic rules. It was
created only for the benefit of the government and became the cause of poverty,
misery and humiliation for the common people who fell into its clutches.
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