Policies of the Extremist Nationalist

Extremist groups emerged as a reaction against the working style of moderate leaders. So it was natural that the working style of the extremist leaders was completely different from the moderates. The working style of the extremists included the following main elements-

1. Distrust in the policy of application-request:

The moderate leaders did not imagine India free from the British Empire, so they insisted on adopting the path of co-operation and persuasion from the government, while the extremist leaders did not believe in the policy of application and solicitation. They also did not consider the policy of cooperation of Indians with the British Empire as appropriate.

2. Belief in the need of a nationwide movement:

The extrimist leaders wanted self-rule for the Indians and felt the need for a nationwide movement to achieve self-rule. He wanted to develop an unbreakable spirit of patriotism and sacrifice in the general public, so that the white government would leave India in fear. To fulfill this objective, he emphasized on boycott of foreign goods, promotion of indigenous goods and national education.

3. Use of religious ceremonies to organize the masses:

During this period, India's rich class, intelligentsia and middle class were trapped in the attraction of western education and lifestyle. In order to create a sense of nationalism among these people, it was necessary to establish India's cultural and spiritual superiority before them. For this purpose, Tilak started the tradition of worshiping Ganesh and celebrating Shivaji festival at the level of common people in Maharashtra. Arobindo Ghosh started Kali Puja  in Bengal. Lala Lajpatrai worked to strengthen the Arya Samaj movement in Punjab. In this way, these extremist leaders made these religious and social ceremonies an effective medium for generating national unity and social consciousness.

4. Use of religious symbols for propaganda:

Nationalist leaders had started social and religious celebrations on a large scale to make the public stand up against the British government and create a sense of unity among them, but the British incited the Muslims against the Hindus under the guise of these celebrations and the hardline Muslim leaders Encouraged to start the separatist movement. Attempts were made by the government to thwart extrimist nationalism by terming it as anti-Muslim. For this reason, the theory of two-nation developed in India. According to this theory, there are not one nation but two nations in India – the first Hindu nation and the second Muslim nation. Impressed by this idea, many Muslims distanced themselves from the national movement and founded the Muslim League in 1906 AD.

5. Need for development of nationalist education:

The extremist leaders wanted to establish such a national education system in India which could produce patriotic citizens. He believed that mental slaves are being prepared through the English education system. If the ability of independent thinking arises in the Indian youth, then the Indian national movement will automatically gain momentum. Inspired by this idea, the extremist leaders established Theosophical Schools and Colleges across the country, D.A.V. School, Hindu College, Banaras Hindu University etc. were established. These institutions played an important role in the spread of nationalism. On this, the British encouraged Muslims and other religious people to establish their own separate educational institutions, in which religious education of those religions, sects and creeds was given.

Causes of the rise of extremist nationalist

While living in the Congress, some people felt that we cannot get freedom by mere persuasion, argument and debate etc. To get rid of imperialism, it is necessary to follow the path of struggle. Therefore, on the basis of these ideas, the extremist mentality was nurtured. The following were the reasons for the rise of this extremist ideology and extremism-

1. Identifying Imperialism

It was only after 1887 that the disgusting face of the government started coming in front of the people and Dadabhai Naoroji exposed the British with his theory of 'drain of wealth'. In the initial 20 years of the Congress, about 9.5 million people died in the severe famine that occurred between 1896-1900. But the British rule did nothing for the people suffering from famine. The Indians were annoyed by the two-pronged policy of recruitment in the Raj services and the government had adopted an indifferent attitude towards the riots in South India. In this way, ignoring the problems of Indians by the government was very painful.

2. Dissatisfaction with the achievements of Congress

The youth wing of the Congress was not satisfied with the achievements of its old leaders. His persuasion policy had completely failed to fulfill his objectives. Therefore, the youth became a strong critic of this policy and began to believe that this political beggary policy of the Congress was the biggest obstacle in achieving independence. Tilak termed Congress conferences as 'conference of sycophants' and said that Congress can achieve Swaraj not by its persuasion but by 'direct action'.

3. Development of education

With the widespread dissemination of education in India, political and social consciousness had spread among the people. They had started discriminating between right and wrong in their own interest. They blamed foreign rule for their educated unemployment and were determined to throw off the yoke of slavery. For this, he was inclined towards the extremists, who could embody his spirit.

4. Resentment against westernization in India

The moderates of the Congress were in favor of westernization for change in India, on which the extremists of the Congress did not agree. He was against the westernization of India. They used to think that this would merge the Indian civilization with the western culture. Arvind Ghosh said, 'Freedom is the goal of our life and it will be fulfilled only by Hinduism'. In such a situation, Dayanand Saraswati, Vivekananda and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee aroused dissatisfaction among Indians against western culture and they brought the richness of Indian culture in front of the people. The ugly form of western civilization was exposed.

5. International Influence

International events of this time also helped in the rise of nationalism in India. Japan becoming a super power in 1868, and the defeat of Italian forces by Ethiopia in 1896, the defeat of Russia by Japan were such events which agitated the mind of Indians and incited them to get freedom because these events made the British had broken the myth of invincibility. 'Garrett' has written that Tilak's movement got a lot of strength after Italy's defeat from a nation like Ethiopia. So Indians had come to know the truth that the countries of Asia continent can progress without any external cooperation.

6. Rapid exploitation of India

Despite the severe famine in the 19th century, continuing to collect tax and not imposing tax on goods imported from Britain, while imposing import tax on Indian products in Britain on exported goods, it was the policy of British Indian economic exploitation, which was strongly condemned. It was really painful to exploit and insult the Indian people even during riots in the South and plague like epidemics in the North West. Tilak said about the plague officers that "these plague officers are more dangerous than the plague."

7. Development of self-confidence and self-esteem

Extremist leaders of Congress 'Lal, Bal, Pal' i.e. Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Vipin Chandra Pal taught the lesson of self respect to Indians. They used to say that indigenous oppression is better than foreign rule. Tilak said "Swaraj is my birthright. I will have it." He appealed to the public to recognize their powers and awaken their self-respect. Tilak did this very well through his Ganesh Utsav and Shivaji Mahotsav in Maharashtra.

8. Curzon's reactionary policy

The reign of Lord Curzon (1899-1905) is famous for its blunders and commissions. Its heinous act like partition of Bengal was strongly condemned across the country. Curzon refused to accept India as a nation. He understood that the people of India are different on the basis of caste and creed. He bitterly criticized the Congress and said, "It is just an organization to vent the anger of the mind." He used to consider Indians as liars. His reactionary policy towards India reached its peak in 1905 at the time of the partition of Bengal. He wanted to divide India on communal lines. The intention of the British Government was made clear by his work.

Importance and impact of Glorious Revolution

The glorious revolution of 1688 AD has great importance in the history of England. As a result of this revolution, the struggle between the parliament and the king, which was going on since 1603 AD or even earlier, came to an end. The importance of this revolution is as follows -

1. Clarification of the main principles of politics

This revolution clarified all the principles due to which this struggle was going on like whose rights are paramount in the king and the parliament; what is the nature of the Church of England; Ministers of State are responsible to the King or to the Parliament; Who has the right to protect civil liberties, make laws and levy taxes; The country's foreign policy and home policy should be according to whose wishes.

2. Rejection of the divine rights of the king

The divine rights of the king cannot be accepted. He is not responsible to God but to the representative Parliament of the people. The power of the public is paramount, so the king does not have the right to change the prevailing rules. The real power of the king depends only on the cooperation of the Parliament. Regarding the responsibility of the Ministers of State, it became clear that they are responsible to the Parliament only.

3. The king is Subject to parliamentary rights

This revolution also made it clear that protecting civil liberties, making laws and levying taxes are under the rights of the Parliament, the king cannot interfere in any way. The home and foreign policy of the state will also be determined by the king not voluntarily but in consultation with the Parliament.

4. Supremacy of Protestant religion in England

In the religious field also it became clear that the real religion of England is Anglican or Protestant. The king's authority over the church was abolished and the responsibility of the church was handed over to the Parliament. It was also decided that no Catholic person or who was married to a Catholic could sit on the throne of England. In this way the threat of Catholicism was ended forever from England and Protestant religion was established in England forever.

5. Bill of Rights

An important result of the Glorious Revolution in 1688 was the emergence of the Parliament as the paramount force in administrative matters. The main source of increasing the power of the Parliament was the Bill of Rights. William had accepted the Bill of Rights before his accession to the throne.

The main clauses of this Bill of Rights were the following:

The king will not keep a permanent army in peace time.

The king will not have the right to establish the Court of High Commission or break the existing rules.

The election of the parliament will be done freely and the members of the parliament will have complete freedom of speech.

The king will not levy taxes without the permission of the parliament.

In future, a Catholic person will not be able to sit on the throne of England.

6.  Cabinet system

From the reign of William, the king used to appoint ministers and they were responsible to the king. During the time of Charles, there were two parties in the Parliament, Whigs and Tory. Both of them were of opposing ideologies. William was forced to appoint his ministers from both the parties. Due to the conflicting parties of the ministers, there used to be differences between them, hence there was a problem in doing the work of the government. The Earl of Cenderland proposed that William should appoint only one party as minister because they would easily work unanimously and they would also get the confidence and support of Parliament. William accepted this advice and started appointing ministers from the majority party in the Parliament. This training of William was successful and in future this practice became permanent. William started appointing his ministers from this party because of the whigs party being in the majority. The meeting of the ministers was called 'Cabinet' and the party government was also established from this time itself.

In this way, Glorious Revolution has great importance in the history of England because in place of despotism and despotism of the kings, real parliamentary system was established. In this way, from the constitutional point of view, it had an impact not only on England but on the whole world. Because of this revolution, the spirit of tolerance in England became stronger and the ban on the press was lifted. The Department of Justice and the Executive were separated and a popular government was established. As Ramsey Muir has written, "This memorable and epoch-making event marked the beginning of the era of popular government in England, and the transfer of power from the hands of despotic monarchs to Parliament." fell into the hands of

Causes of the Glorious Revolution

James II ruled for three years, after which he was forced to flee England. As a result of all the work he did under the home policy during his three-year short reign, a glorious revolution was born in England. Not even a single drop of blood fell on the earth in this revolution, that is why it is called glorious revolution or bloodless revolution. The following were the reasons for the Glorious Revolution:

1. Conflict between the king and the parliament

The Tudor rulers had become autocratic after Henry VII destroyed the power of the feudal lords. The middle class was encouraged by the Tudor rulers. And this class had received higher education. Due to the renaissance and religious reform movements that took place during this period, the middle class became very aware of their rights. In 1603, the Stuart dynasty was established in England. James I tried to impose his divine rights on the public, but the public opposed it, as a result of which the struggle between the king and the parliament started in England. In the time of James II, the struggle between the King and the Parliament became intense and it ended in the form of Glorious Revolution.

2. The despotism of James II

James II tried to rule autocratically from the beginning. He wanted to create fear and terror in the public with his tyrannical and autocratic policy, so that he could rule arbitrarily. James II was Catholic and most of the people of England were Protestant. James wanted to propagate Catholicism in England, for this purpose James built a new church in London, which was strongly opposed by the public. James took the opportunity to increase his army, so that he could terrorize the people. The public did not want the establishment of military rule again in England, so it was natural for the people to oppose the autocratic policy of James.

3.Bloody Assizes

The whigs party was opposed to the accession of James II to the throne in England. The whigs leaders inspired Charles' illegitimate son Monmouth to rebel. Monmath gathered the army and declared himself the successor of England. James II defeated and imprisoned Monmath at a place called Sagemoor. The rebels were treated inhumanely and Monmath was given the death penalty. This court was called Bloody Assizes and the public became disgusted with the tyrannical and harsh policy of James II.

4. Violation of Test Rule  

In England, at the time of Charles II, the Parliament had passed the Test Act. By this act only followers of the Anglican Church could be government servants. Hence Catholics were barred from government service. James II himself was a Catholic. So wanted to provide facilities to the Catholics but due to the Test Act, he could not fulfill his wishes. The Parliament of England opposed these actions of James. James did not care about the opposition of the Parliament, so the feeling of rebellion started awakening in the public.

5. Interference in Universities

James also began appointing Catholics to the universities. A Catholic man was appointed to the post of dean in Christ Church College and all the teachers of the Macdalen School were removed because they refused to make a Catholic person their president despite James's wish. In this way, James II tried to establish the supremacy of Catholics on education, which posed a threat to the Protestant community, so it became necessary for the Protestant community to oppose James.

6. Friendship with France

The influence of Louis, the ruler of France, was overshadowed in Europe at this time. Like Charles II, James II was greatly influenced by Louis XIV. He wanted to establish his autocratic rule in England by getting financial and military help from France. Louis the Fourteenth was a staunch Catholic and persecuted the Protestant class in France, so the people of England did not like Louis the Fourteenth and expected James not to befriend France.

7. Declarations of Indulgence

James II was completely Catholic and wanted to make England a Catholic country. To fulfill this purpose, he disregarded the Test Act and appointed Catholics to all high state posts. James subsequently made the first declaration of Indulgence in 1687 AD by which the restrictions imposed on Catholics and other sects were abolished. It was not long after the first declaration of indulgence that in 1688 he made his second declaration of religious grace. Through this declaration, complete freedom was given to all religions and James II gave the facility to provide state position to everyone without any discrimination of class and religion. Protestants were very angry with this work of James and the spirit of revolution started to prevail in them.

8. James' failure to understand the power of the people

James had the illusion that he could rule arbitrarily by intimidating the people with force. James II should have taken a lesson from history and should not have forgotten how the people demonstrated their power against Charles I and Charles I received the death penalty. It was necessary for James to test the sentiment of the people and rule like Charles II, but he acted against the will of the people and he failed to understand the power of the people.

9. Birth of James II's son

James had two daughters from his first wife—Mary and Ann. Both of them were Protestants. Therefore, the public thought that after the death of James II, Mary would become the queen, so the Protestant community would be able to get facilities, but on June 10, 1588, James II's second wife Modena gave birth to a son. James's son's birth proved to be a terrible fate for him, as the populace believed that James would give his son a Catholic education, so they would never be free from the tyranny of the Catholic kings. The public now thought it necessary to revolutionize against James II.

Contribution of King Louis XIV of France: Foreign Policy

Louis XIV, like his predecessors, dreamed of making France the best country in Europe. Therefore, he was in favor of changing the boundaries of France in Europe. He was an advocate of the 'Doctrine of natural boundaries' of European countries. In short, he wanted to extend the boundaries of France to the Alps and the Pyrenees in the south, the sea in the west and the Rhine River in the north-east. This simply meant that he would have to fight with foreign powers. For this, he first organized two departments -

(A) Military Department-Louis XIV wanted to establish a centralized strong army. Therefore, he appointed a capable and efficient person 'Louvois' as his war minister. According to his instructions, Louvois made proper arrangements for strict discipline, practice and efficient war education in the French army. The right of promotion in the army was kept merit. There were capable generals like Conde and Touraine in his army. The Minister of War was responsible to Louis XIV in every situation.

(B) Foreign Department-Louis the fourteenth appointed efficient, skilful and diplomatic 'Lionne' as the Minister of Foreign Department for the meaningfulness of efficient foreign policy. Fortification was done by building forts on the eastern and northern borders of France. The foreign minister was responsible to the ruler in every situation. The decision of war and treaty was taken by the ruler himself.

1. War of Devolution with Spain

Cause :

The main reason for the war was the ambition and imperialist policy of Louis XIV. Louis wanted to make the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) and French Comte a part of his empire for the successful execution of this policy. To fulfill this objective, Louis XIV took the basis of the rule of succession called feudal or local devolution prevalent in the Spanish Netherlands. According to this rule, only the child of the first woman had the maximum right on the ancestral property.

According to the 'Treaty of the Pyrenees' in 1659 AD, Louis IV had married Maria Theresa, the daughter of the Spanish King Philip IV. Maria Theresa was the daughter of King Philip's first wife. Therefore, according to the law of succession, the authority of Maria Theresa over the Spanish Netherlands was proved.

This war was waged by France on the basis of the law of succession of Devolution. Hence it is known as 'War of Devolution'.

Events of war

As soon as the war was declared against Spain in 1667 AD, Louis XIV's army took advantage of the weakness and decadence of Spain and took possession of French Comte. After this the French army entered the Spanish Netherlands.

At this time, the success of France so easily raised the ears of England, Holland and Sweden. England and Holland put an end to their mutual rivalry and together with Sweden formed a triumvirate in 1668 AD. This step undoubtedly forced Louis XIV to 'Treaty of Ella Chapel'.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

According to this treaty, cities like Tournai, Charlesai and Lille, which were on the border of France, had to be handed over to Spain. France returned most of the Spanish Netherlands won in the war. According to Heyes, 'This treaty kept the thirst of Louis XIV unsatisfied.'

2. War with the Dutch (1672–1678)

Cause of war:

• Forced in the War of Devolution, Louis XIV had to sign the Treaty of Ella-Chapelle. Louis XIV considered Holland as the reason for this. So he wanted to avenge his insult from Holland.
• Louis also understood very well that Holland is the biggest obstacle for the expansion of France's empire and business progress. In fact, the expansion of France's empire to the north-east threatened the security of Holland. Therefore Holland was also suspicious of France.
• Dutch Calvinists were intolerable for Louis because of his staunch Catholicism. The biggest thing was that Holland had given shelter to the Huguenots who had fled from France.

Pre-War Diplomacy:

• Louis first signed the Treaty of Dover in 1670 by giving money to the ruler of England, Charles II, to defeat him in the Dutch war. With this treaty, he obtained the neutrality of England.
• Sweden was also joined by giving money. In this way, by breaking the triumvirate, Louis created a favorable situation for himself.
• On the contrary, civil war was going on between monarchists and republicans in Holland at this time. Taking advantage of this internal problem of Holland, he declared war against Holland in 1672 AD.

War Events:

• This war of France with Holland continued from 1672 AD to 1678 AD. The French army was represented by generals named Code and Tusse. The French army soon occupied Lorraine, De Witt, who led the Dutch, opened treaty negotiations with Louis XIV as soon as the French army entered Amsterdam.
• The Dutch killed De Witt on this and the Dutch were now led by Prince William of Laren. William immediately opened the gates of the sea dam. As a result, the French army could not capture Amsterdam. William immediately took the initiative in building a faction against Louis.
• Here the European countries were apprehensive of the success of France. Having Austria, Denmark, Brandenburg, England and Spain on his side, William formed an alliance against Louis. Sweden did not leave Louis' side. In 1678, both the sides signed the 'Treaty of Nimvejin'.

Treaty of Nimvesin:

With the treaty of Nimvesin, France got the French Comte of Spain and many cities of Belgium. French dominance was established over Lorraine. This was an important effort of Louis to expand the border towards the Rhine river.

Result :

This treaty increased the prestige of France in Europe, but it had an adverse effect on the economy of France. France went on becoming financially bankrupt day by day.

3. War of the League of Augsburg (1688–1697)

Cause of war:

In order to keep the territories that Louis had received from the Treaties of Ela chapel and Nimvesin, Louis IV made special courts there to keep them under his control. These courts were called 'Chambers of Reunion'. As directed by the courts, Louis clarified French authority in Strasbourg, Alsace and 20 other cities in Germany.

Terrified by these terrible actions of Louis XIV, in 1786 AD, Spain, Austria, some German states, Holland and Sweden etc. jointly established the 'League of Augsburg'. All this was unbearable for Louis.

War Events:

This war lasted from 1688 AD to 1697 AD. The fields of this war were Palatine, India, America and Cologne. A fierce struggle started between the British and the French settled in America and India. By 1697 AD, both the sides were tired of fighting. Therefore, in 1697 'Treaty of Riswick' was done between the two sides.

Treaty of ryswick

The clauses of the treaty of Ryswick which took place on September 20, 1697 were as follows:

• The Dutch got the right to fortify the border of the Spanish Netherlands.
• Louis gave up his claim on all the territories except Strasbourg which he had received through the 'Chambers of Reunion'.
• Louis XIV made a trade treaty with the Dutch.
• Louis relinquished his claims to the kingdom of the Paratinet.
• France recognized William III as the ruler of England.
• France gave up its claim on the province of Lorraine.

In this way, it is clear from the clauses of the treaty that there was no special loss to France by this treaty. His military power was still well organized and huge. France's authority over Alsace remained intact, but it must be acknowledged that "the War of the League and the Treaty of Ryswick, for the first time the states of Europe succeeded in controlling Louis's ambition and imperialist policy.

War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1713)

Cause

• Will the Bourbon dynasty or the Hapsburg dynasty of Austria have the right over the vast empire of Spain? This problem led to the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1713).
• Balance of power and colonial trade were two such questions which were related to the European importance of the question of succession of Spain. If the claim of Emperor Leopold I of Austria on Spain was accepted, Leopold I's empire would have been like Charles V's empire. This would have made the power of the Hapsburg dynasty unlimited. On the other hand, if the supremacy of France was accepted in the Spanish Empire, then the power of France would have taken a tremendous form in Europe.

Diplomacy

• Louis XIV tried to solve the question of succession by diplomacy without fighting. He and William III made a treaty of partition in 1698 AD.
• According to this treaty, the American colonies of Spain and the ruler of the Spanish Netherlands, Webernaria, were decided to meet Joseph. The rest of the empire was to be divided between Louis' son the Dauphin and Leopold's son, Archduke Charles. Charles II was excluded from this treaty.
• Louis XIV, William III and Leopold I made a treaty in 1700 AD. In this treaty it was arranged that the Spanish Belgian and American colonies would belong to Archduke Charles. The Dauphin would have authority over Naples, Milan and Sicily.
• When Charles came to know about this, he got angry and declared Philip of Anzo, the grandson of Louis, ie Dauphin's second son, the authority of the entire Spanish Empire. This announcement was a boon for Louis the Fourteenth, so he started calling his son the heir to the Spanish Empire, keeping the former treaty in check.

Thus, as soon as Europe was divided into two camps, a fierce war started on both sides in 1702 AD on the question of Spanish succession.

Events

• The main areas in the War of the Spanish Succession were Italy, Spain, the Netherlands and Central Europe. This war of succession started from Italy.
• After 1704 AD, the war took a terrible form. Now it spread to Italy, Austria, Netherlands, Spain, India and American colonies.
• When Austria accepted the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the War of the Spanish Succession came to an end.

Treaty of Utrecht:

• Philip V (Philip of Anzo), the grandson of Louis XIV, was recognized as the ruler of Spain and the western islands.
• This condition was accepted that there should be no combination of France and Spain in any way.
• Naples, Sardinia, Milan and Belgium were given to Austria as compensation.
• England received Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Gibraltar and Minorca located in the Mediterranean Sea of Hudson Bay. He got the monopoly of slave trade with the Spanish colonies.

The Treaty of Utrecht has a very important place in the history of Europe. It is true that according to this inconvenience, nationalism and people's aspirations were strangled by giving Belgium to Austria, Nice to Savoy and many American colonies of Spain and France to England, but it must be accepted that the balance of power in this treaty Every effort has been made to make The expansion of service's kingdom, with the integration of Italy and the establishment of the independent state of Prussia, the integration of Germany became easier. The expansion of Austria's empire became possible. The dominance of France began to end in Europe. Undoubtedly, this treaty was a sign of the era of commercial and colonial rivalry instead of political rivalry.

Contribution of King Louis XIV of France: Home Policy

The importance of the reign of Louis XIV can be gauged from the fact that Voltaire and Will Durrant have defined the history of Europe at that time in the name of Louis XIV.

1. Kingship Theory: Definition and Demonstration

a. No division in power: After the death of Mazaren, King Louis XIV concentrated the entire administration in his hands. After this, King Louis XIV did not appoint any person to the post of Prime Minister and he said that he did not need the help of any minister, he would rule himself. He himself wanted to conduct administration policies. He used to consider his ministers and officials like clerks and servants.

b. Powers of state institutions were limited: The powers of the Parliament, States General and Municipalities of France were limited, that is why no meeting of the National Assembly called 'States General' was called during his reign. For this reason, no meeting of the National Assembly called 'States General' was called during his reign. He started saying that "I am the State."

c. Recognition of the divine right of the king: For the fatalistic people of the society, he tried to establish that he has been created by God as the king, so it is their destiny for the people to follow the orders of the king. Louis accomplished this task with great pomp and dignity. Bossue was an eloquent clergyman and widely studied in history and philosophy. He made him the teacher of his son. Every day when he used to speak in the church, he used to advocate the supremacy of the king. According to him monarchy is 'the most ancient, most appropriate and most natural form of government'. He used to say that God creates the king for his special work. God controls the world through the king. Therefore the king is responsible only to God, according to him "the king is the representative of God on earth."

d. Royal symbol SUN: He kept his royal symbol Sun. He was called Roi Soleil or Sun King. This thing was very important. Just as the sun is the center of the entire solar system, similarly he himself was the center of the entire system. And just as all the planets of the solar system revolve around the sun, getting light and life from it, in the same way life and light flowed from it in his kingdom.

e. Emphasis on prestige: To display his pride and prestige, he built a royal palace at a place called Versailles, 12 miles from the city of Paris. In its construction, the services of high quality artisans of France were taken and the palace was decorated in a very beautiful and luxurious manner. The king and his family, courtiers and high officials of the administration resided in the palace of Versailles.

f. Cultural development for image building: Louis XIV also paid special attention to the development of art, literature and music. Corneille was a well-known dramatist and is called the 'Father of French drama'. Moller was also a dramatist of high order. The skill of his writing style is clearly visible in the humorous letters of Madan de Sévienne. The style of La Fontaine and Ratsin is also very beautiful. The works of these writers had made the French language popular in Europe. That is why the reign of King Louis XIV is called the 'Golden Age' of French literature. The art, lifestyle, dress and literature of France became a model for civilized Europe.

2. Economic Reforms: Colbert's Efforts

Louis XIV appointed Colbert to the post of Finance Minister. After becoming the finance minister, his main objective was to develop and strengthen the economic condition of France. But as soon as he turned his attention to reforms, he found many problems.

• excess of government expenditure
• Tax burden on general public
• Contractual practice of collecting tax
• The impact on the exchequer due to the excess of wars

To overcome these problems, it took the following steps-

• First of all, a special court of honest and hardworking people was formed to investigate corrupt and greedy employees. Due to his efforts, the state got the hijacked amount of about 40 crore rupees.
• Colbert wanted to impose direct land tax on the elite class as well, but he could not do so due to government interference, but Colbert checked the certificates of the elites on the basis of which they were exempted from direct land tax. The nobles whose rights could not be proved, he forced them to pay land tax.
• He reduced the direct taxes of the farmers and tried to improve the breeds of animals to improve the condition of the farmers.
• For the arrangement of irrigation, the 160-mile-long Languedoc Canal was built, connecting the Rhône and Garonne rivers with the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Sea.
• Along with increasing the state's income and cutting expenditure, reduced the interest rate on loans.
• Colbert adopted Mercantilism for the advancement of trade and commerce. Under this policy, he encouraged new industries in France. Artisans and skilled trainers were invited to France from Holland, England and Italy. It was declared illegal for French artisans to go abroad.

3. Centralization of Administration

His important task was to organize the central administration. He created many committees in the administration whose members were like his servants. The first committee in the center was the 'Council of State' whose function was to advise the king regarding international problems. Second, there was the 'Council of Despatches' whose jurisdiction was related to internal administration. The third committee used to conduct financial work, which was called 'Council of Finance'. The king himself used to determine all the policies of the administration. The work of each committee was only to give advice to the king and they could not do any work independently without the approval of the king. Louis XIV himself kept a strict eye on the departments of the administration. He used to say that "Government is through work and for work."

4. Religious Policy

Louis XIV declared in France in 1682 AD that he was above the Pope in France even if it was a matter of religion. Hence the struggle started between Louis  and Pope Innocent Fourteenth. This conflict is known in history as the "Rigel's struggle". Ultimately, in 1693 AD, Louis XIV had to withdraw his declaration, but the Pope also had to recognize the right of Louis to appoint vacant bishops in France. Louis XIV was definitely defeated in this struggle, but now the church of France started talking about him. Louis XIV was religiously intolerant. He adopted the policy of suppression of non-Catholics in France. Due to this, skilled, peace-loving and mercantile people like Jansenites Visually skilled merchants and artisans had to flee from France. His religious policy seriously affected his foreign policy.

Rise of absolute monarchy in France in the seventeenth century

In the history of Europe, at the beginning of the 17th century, the existence of new types of political states came into existence, whose nature was completely different from the nature of the Ottoman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Absolute monarchy started to become a unit of the modern state type of Europe. The following were the reasons for the rise of absolute national monarchy in France at the beginning of the seventeenth century—

1. Weakness in feudalism

The feudatories gradually increased their power and started ruling like small states. In fact, the feudatories were small kings who used to fight with each other. Not only this, he used to consult the king as well. The condition of the farmers in the feudal system was also very deplorable. The exploited people were very much suffering from the feudal system. Therefore, direct contact was established between the public and the king. Feudalism declined due to the support of the king by the people. The power of the king increased. As a result, the way for the establishment of autocratic monarchies was paved.

2. Weakening of religious authority

By the end of the Middle Ages, many defects had arisen in the Church. The Pope, whose command was paramount in the religious field, began to think of himself as the representative of God. In addition to the religious field, the Pope also started interfering in the political field, but due to the advent of the modern era and the Renaissance, the people of Europe had now become rational. He opposed the immorality, corruption and luxury of the Pope. Rulers who were opposed to the authority of the Pope in political matters took advantage of public sentiments and vehemently opposed the authority of the Pope. As a result of the religious reform movement, the church became completely subordinate to the king. This increased the honor and prestige of the position of the king. The administration of the churches now came under the authority of the king. Thus, the decline of the papacy proved to be an important factor in the growth of the power of monarchies.

3. Rise of the middle class

The decline of the feudal system proved to be very important from the point of view of the rise of the middle class. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the social and economic condition of the middle class became very strong. The middle class supported the monarchy in view of the development and security of their trade and commerce. The kings also gained the sympathy of the middle class by patronizing trade and commerce. Colonization got a boost, the intelligentsia contributed significantly to the development of the feeling of nationalism. In the book named 'Prince' composed by Machiavelli, the 'principle of divine rights' of the king was confirmed. Hence the importance of establishment of monarchy in Europe was accepted.

4. Innovation

The new inventions taking place during the Renaissance gave a special contribution to the rise of autocratic monarchies. The invention of gunpowder, the use of cannons, changes in wartime, the discovery of new colonies, and the invention of the printing press proved to be very effective from this point of view.

5. Efforts of the rulers

France was the first country in Europe, in which political unity was first established. In France, the national government had been established in the thirteenth century by suppressing the feudatories. The king of France, taking advantage of the increase in his rights, levied land tax and in this way increased the power of the king by spending immense money. To increase the power of the king, Louis-XI strengthened the monarchy by crushing the power of many feudal lords and weakening the influence of the church. The political and military authority of religious leaders was abolished during the reign of Louis XIII. The feudatories were weakened and turned into beautiful puppets, along with centralization of administration.

6. Favorable European Position

The situation in Europe at this time proved to be favorable for France as Austrian power had been weakened by the Thirty Years' War, Spain was on the verge of collapse, Germany was suffering from its own political and economic problems, England was in a state of turmoil. While France was in a better position due to the efforts of Richelieu and Mazarin. In Heyes's words, a "favorable background for the beginning of a new era" had been created.

Reasons for the fall of Spain

The heyday of the Spanish Empire was undoubtedly the first half of the reign of Philip II. The Spanish Empire, inherited from Charles V, was a symbol of Philip II's power. At this time there were many European territories and American colonies in the Spanish Empire. Not only this, the Spanish Empire was self-evident as the prestige of the Hapsburg dynasty in the whole of Europe. Despite all this, the decline of the Spanish Empire started from the latter part of the reign of Philip II and with the death of Philip IV in 1665, the pride of Spain disappeared in European politics. In short, the main causes of the decline of the Spanish Empire can be indicated as follows:

1. Structure of the Spanish Empire

The vastness of the Spanish Empire undoubtedly proved fatal to its downfall. Under his sphere of influence were many European countries, American colonies and the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Therefore, there was considerable disparity in the states that came under the Spanish Empire in culture, language, religion, governance, ethnicity, customs, traditions and historical etc. On the one hand this was the situation and on the other hand the form of the empire was not national but dynastic. Therefore, from time to time various problems used to arise in the empire. Religious reform movement, French-Spanish war, aggressive policy of Turks, anti-Spanish policy of England and rebellion of Netherlands were similar problems.

2. Unfit successor of Philip II

The reign of Philip II's son Philip III (1598–1621) proved to be a period of economic misery. The biggest reason for this was that he became a toy in the hands of his dear ones. He himself was also an inept and weak ruler. The period of Philip IV (1621-1665) was scorched in the wraps of the Thirty Years' War, he himself was unfit, as well as the independence struggle of the Dutch and the Portuguese challenged the Spanish Empire. Undoubtedly, his period was the period of the end of the sun in the form of the Spanish Empire. The period of his successor Charles II (1665–1700) is known as the period of 'Dynastic Anarchy' in the Spanish Empire. Charles II was an inept and weak and short-sighted ruler. In this way, after Philip II, the Spanish Empire did not get the leadership of any capable ruler, who would have given relief from the terrible calamities coming to the Spanish Empire. Therefore, this statement seems to be true that, "Charles V was a great warrior and ruler. Philip II was only a ruler. Philip III and Philip IV were not even rulers, and Charles II (born of Philip II's second wife) was not even a human being."

3. Economic Desperation of Spain

Due to the deterioration of the economic condition of Spain, there were terrible expenses and wars of the monarchy. It is true that colonies were needed for Spain to strengthen its economic position at this time and a wealth-rich colony like America was in the possession of Spain, but with the aim of establishing Spanish dominance in European politics, Charles V and Philip II Tried their burden was too heavy. The people of the royal court and dynasty used to waste money in enjoyment and luxury. It was never justified from the economic point of view to expel business-skilled Jews and Moors from Spain. The condition of agriculture was also very pathetic. Most of the land was dominated by the church or feudal lords. He never thought about the progress of agriculture.

4. Policy of religious intolerance of the Spanish rulers

The Spanish rulers were Catholic. He always tried to make Catholicism a European universal religion. For this purpose, the repression of Catholic opponents was done mercilessly. Religious courts called 'Inquisition' are a clear proof of this. Therefore, the path of independent thinking and scientific ideology got blocked. This was the reason that Spain fell far behind in cultural and legal terms compared to other nations of Europe, which proved to be an important reason for the decline of the Spanish Empire.

5. Lack of strong navy

Spain's army was very strong, but to maintain its supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Sea, it was necessary for Spain to strengthen its navy as well. The Spanish rulers never seriously considered the development of a strong navy. Philip IV once formed a powerful Armada to take on England, but the defeat of the Armada put a question mark on the power of the Spanish Navy. On the contrary, the naval forces of Spain's main rivals France and England kept getting stronger day by day. Spain would certainly have succeeded in suppressing the rebellion of the Netherlands if its navy was strong.

6. Population Decline

In the first phase of the sixteenth century, there was a huge decrease in the population of Spain. Spain's loss of life in long-term wars, expulsion of Jews and Moors from the country and migration of Spaniards to colonies were the important reasons for this. Rapid decline in population proved very fatal for Spain from the social and political point of view.

7. Other important reasons

In addition to the above reasons, Spain's defeat in the Thirty Years' War, French ruler Louis 14th's empire expansionist policy, England's colonialist policy and England and Holland's move towards monopoly in the naval sector proved to be important factors for the downfall of the Spanish Empire.

In this way, it can be assumed that the vastness of the Spanish Empire and the inefficient policies of the Spanish rulers created many contradictions in the Spanish Empire. These contradictions had a direct impact on the political, social, economic, religious and cultural situation there. This effect proved to be negative, which was taken full advantage of by the Spanish rivals, France and Holland, and attacked the Spanish Empire. The inept successors of Philip II of England proved incapable of withstanding this blow. Therefore, in such a situation, the fall of Spain was inevitable and an era began whose leadership went into the hands of France.

Cause of the Netherlands Revolt

Starting position

At the beginning of the sixteenth century, there were seventeen provinces under the Netherlands, which differed among themselves. Because these regions were situated far below the surface of the sea, hence they were also called as low-lying regions. In these, the people of the seven provinces of the north were called 'Dutch' and in these northern provinces, Holland and Zeeland were dominant. The inhabitants of the provinces of Brevant and Flanders in the middle were called 'Flemings' who were mainly of the Teutonic race. Namur, Heno, Artwa etc. were prominent in the provinces of South, in which people of 'Celt' race lived, who were called 'Walloons'. In this way, there was diversity in the provinces of Netherlands from all points of view like caste, language, living etc.

Charles V Era

When Charles V became the ruler of the Netherlands, he established three central councils to strengthen the administration of the Netherlands, in which the 'Council of State' was very important. Brussels located in the center of the Netherlands was declared the capital. To protect the revenue and general interests of the provinces, a parliament called 'States General' was established, in which the representatives of the provincial councils were there. Thus Emperor Charles V tried to organize the administration of the Netherlands. Apart from this, due to his birth in the Flanders province of the Netherlands, his rule was popular and he ruled as a national ruler in the Netherlands. Emperor Charles V adopted a policy of repression against the religious reformation movement in the Netherlands and tried to stop the spread of Protestantism. He also used religious courts to suppress the Protestants, but during his reign, the people of the Netherlands did not oppose him collectively.

Era of Philip ii

The situation changed after the accession of Philip II, the son of Emperor Charles V, because the inhabitants of the Netherlands considered him a foreigner because King Philip II was a Spaniard by birth. He no longer had the same sympathy for King Philip II that he had for Emperor Charles V. On the other hand, King Philip II also had no sympathy for the needs and aspirations of the inhabitants of the Netherlands. He followed the administrative and economic policy neglecting the interests of the people of the Netherlands. He imposed restrictions on the trade and commerce of the Netherlands and adopted a policy of repression against the Protestant provinces. Therefore, being forced, the people of Netherlands rebelled against these policies of King Philip II.

                 Causes of rebellion

Due to economic, political, religious, personal reasons, the people of the Netherlands organized an armed rebellion against the ruler of Spain, Philip II.

1. Economic reasons

The main basis of the prosperity and splendor of the Netherlands were industry-business and trade-commerce. During the reign of Emperor Charles V, there was an increase in the burden of taxes on the Netherlands. But due to the approval of the Parliament called 'States General' there could not be a mass opposition to this tax increase. Apart from this, during his reign, Emperor Charles V had also tried to make the Netherlands industry-business and trade-commerce prosperous by encouraging them. Due to this effort of Emperor Charles V, the popularity of his rule remained in the Netherlands. But after that, King Philip II increased the taxes in the Netherlands for the purpose of obtaining money for the administrative expenses of the Spanish Empire and for the conduct of wars. But this time the Parliament called 'States General' refused to approve funds for these wars of Spain and said that the Netherlands had nothing to do with these wars. Apart from this, the restrictions imposed by King Philip II on the trade-commerce of the Netherlands were also intolerable to the people of the Netherlands, because these restrictions blocked the economic and industrial development of the Netherlands. Therefore, the residents of the Netherlands first opposed this economic policy of King Philip II and revolted.

2. Religious reason

Since the reign of Emperor Charles V, the influence of the religious reformation movement was increasing rapidly in the Netherlands. He used the religious courts to protect Catholicism and suppress Protestantism, but the enthusiasm of the Protestants did not decrease even through the tyranny of the religious courts of Emperor Charles V, but the promotion of Calvinism began to happen at a faster pace. Philip II, who succeeded Emperor Charles V as ruler of the Netherlands, was a staunch Catholic. For him the spread of Protestantism in his kingdom was intolerable. Therefore, he resolved to completely destroy Protestantism from the Netherlands. For this purpose, he increased the number of nominated bishops and archbishops and their rights in the Netherlands. He used the religious courts as a major weapon against Protestantism. The Protestants were suffering from the tyranny of these religious courts, but along with them, the Catholics also became opposed to the unrighteousness done by these courts. King Philip II was not ready for any amendment in this policy and he did not pay any attention to the demands of the people. As a result, Protestants rebelled to protect their religious freedom.

3. Political reasons

Political reason was also prominent among the reasons for the rebellion of the Netherlands. King Philip II abolished many traditional rights of feudal lords and cities for the purpose of centralization of governance. He also stopped calling a meeting of Parliament called 'States General' and without its approval, he burdened the people of the Netherlands with many taxes, which were not ready for this. He removed the feudal lords and other citizens of the Netherlands from the influential posts of governance and started appointing Spaniards in their place. In this way, the foreignness of King Philip II became the reason for the dissatisfaction of the people there. He had left the responsibility of the administration of the Netherlands in the hands of most of the Spanish officials and after 1559 he himself never went to the Netherlands. His Spanish officials neglected the interests of the people of the Netherlands and started atrocities there. Therefore, there was great discontent among the people of the Netherlands and they revolted.

4. Military Reason

Apart from this, the presence of the Spanish army in the Netherlands also became a reason for the rebellion. In 1559 AD, in the wars between Spain and France, the Spanish forces came to the Netherlands. But even after the end of the war, these armies did not go back to Spain and remained in different cities of Netherlands whose expenses had to be borne by the people there. This caused great discontent among the people of the Netherlands and it became unbearable for them to bear the financial burden of the army for a long time. As a result, he started opposing this policy of King Philip II. Finally, after some time King Philip II, influenced by his protest, called back his army from the Netherlands.

5. Personal reasons

Emperor Charles V's rule was popular in the Netherlands. The reason for this was that he was born in the province of Flanders in the Netherlands and the people there saw him only from the point of view of a Dutchman. This was the reason that Emperor Charles V was regarded as a national ruler throughout the Netherlands. But due to the birth and upbringing of his son King Philip II in Spain, he could not get that position in the Netherlands. The residents of the Netherlands considered King Philip II as a foreigner. King Philip II also did not have any sympathy for the residents of the Netherlands, due to which he could not become popular in the Netherlands and people started opposing him, which resulted in a rebellion in the future.

Spain: Contribution of Charles V

               Causes the rise of Spain

Today, Spain is comparatively one of the politically and economically backward countries of Europe, but in the early modern period it was considered one of the most powerful and advanced countries in Europe. Spain's past has been inspirational, but only for a short time because the material sources of Spain's greatness were not in that country. The reasons for the progress of Spain were as follows –

1. Nothing special was produced there except in the coastal region of Spain. No significant minerals have been discovered so far. But this poverty came in handy for them. This was also one of the reasons behind the Spaines becoming sailor.
2. When the power of the Arabs increased, they came to Spain while conquering North Africa, they remained in Spain for centuries. They built beautiful cities, built mosques, opened universities, even when they left after defeat, they left behind a hardworking successor in the form of 'Moors'.
3. Castile and Aragon were the two big kingdoms in Spain in the fifteenth century. Isabella and Ferdinand ruled there respectively. When Isabella and Ferdinand were married, the unification of the kingdoms of the husband and wife was natural.
4. In the fourteenth-fifteenth century, the Christian world was beset by the increasing influence of the Turks. In the west, Spanish troops ended the centuries-old Muslim influence and reestablished Christian influence. In this struggle, the Spanish society especially the soldiers had flourished.
5. Due to fanatical Christian policies, the two biggest productive elements of the Spanish society, the Moors (Muslims) and the Jewish people were running away in terror, but only then the New World (America continent) was discovered. Other countries in Europe were not fully organized or engaged in mutual conflicts. In such a situation, Spain got a chance to take the initiative and Spain's dominance was established over most of America. There was abundance of gold and silver in these territories. Thus Spain got a chance.
6. In the growing period of nationalism, every state was increasing its influence. The political use of marriage at this time has probably never happened. The royal houses of all Europe were ready to join each other. Trapped in the matrimonial, such a coincidence happened in the royal houses of Europe that the rulers kept dying and the nearest successor was declared Charles. Before becoming an adult, he became the master of Spain, the Netherlands, all the territories ruled by the Hapsburg family, and all the colonies in America. Hardly anyone got such a big state in succession. For this reason the historian Hayes has even said that 'it started raining like this on him the kingdoms and empires'. As the ruler of this vast empire, he ruled till 1556 AD.

    Problems facing Charles V

1. Wide Empire

Charles did not even know the languages of his entire kingdom. There were four major languages and many dialects in his kingdom like Spanish, Dutch, German, Italian. Different regions had their own traditions. It had its own system of governance. Everyone's economic condition was not the same. Not everyone was equally happy with Charles as ruler. In such a situation, he was suppressed by the burden of his succession.

2. Other succession rivals

In the election of the emperor of the Roman Empire, he won from his rivals, but Francis wanted to settle the wars by losing the election and he was such a big fighter that he was not ready to accept defeat.

3. Problem of the Turks

The area of influence of Turks was increasing. With the breaking of the constantinople Obstacle, now the power of the Turks was increasing at an uninterrupted pace. Under the leadership of an able ruler like Suleiman the Great, the Turks started reaching Central Europe. Who can say to beat them, it was difficult to stop them.

4. Martin Luther

Coincidentally, in Charles's empire, Martin Luther also raised the voice of rebellion, due to which not only the church, but also the throne of the empire started shaking.

5. Revolt of the national units of the empire

The national units in the empire had developed enough to oppose Charles's empire. Various states began to rise, especially in Germany. Sometimes the feudal lord raised his head and sometimes the king.

6. New Economic Order

In this, efforts to establish economic unity also failed. The emerging capitalist system was not ready to accept any disruption. The rich people had become so powerful that the entire economy was in their hands, so that they could not even be suppressed.

7. Administrative Weakness

The administrative problems of the state were raising their heads separately. The different states of Germany had different governing traditions and that of Castile and Aragon. Even in the Netherlands there were local traditions. To violate them was to invite rebellion and to follow them meant to weaken the central authority. In this upheaval, he kept calling for some area, suppressing some, giving some exemption to some, snatching the rights of some and the problems were increasing.

8. Economic Weakness

The economic side was weak for several reasons. One, he had to start a war as soon as he took over the rule, the process of which did not break till the end. The battlefield was also not limited, sometimes on the borders of France, sometimes in Italy, sometimes on the eastern borders of the empire, army or traffic was difficult, it was also very expensive. So many expenses could not be met from the revenue because the tax system was not only poor, it could not be fully implemented as it was. In such a situation, colonies spewing gold and silver were a boon. Unearned, looted money kept giving relief for a few days, but it weakened the entire economy.

9. Security of Colonies

Britain's eyes on Spain's colonies lacked the resources and navy to deal with them.

To what extent Charles V was successful in solving these problems, it is clear from his actions. We can divide his efforts into two parts –

   Home Policy of Charles V

Following are the details of Charles V's home policy-

1. Rule of Spain

Rebellion :

After the death of Ferdinand in 1516 AD, Charles V was enthroned as the emperor of the Spanish Empire. Here he ruled with absolute autocracy. The autocracy of Charles was unbearable even to the feudal lords and city representatives of Spain. Therefore, from 1520 AD to 1522 there were fierce rebellions in Spain.

Suppression and method:

1. Charles V succeeded in crushing these rebellions by taking advantage of the mutual struggle between the feudal lords and the city representatives. The feudal class now started supporting autocratic administration against the city representatives. Taking advantage of the opportunity, Charles V took away the rights of the city-representatives, their local rights related to city-administration were also limited. Now a state official was appointed to run the administration of the city.

2. Affected by the manner in which the parliamentarians of Aragon and Castile had initially opposed the autocratic rule of Charles, Charles took away the real power of the Parliament, but its duties remained the same. Now the Parliament was a state dependent institution.

Positive Initiatives:

1. By establishing his autocratic administration till 1523 AD, he appointed only Spaniards to most of the government posts for the satisfaction of the residents of Spain.

2. Charles V took steps for the unification and nationalization of Spain.

3. He followed the imperialist policy to establish the importance of Spain in international politics. He succeeded in establishing Spanish colonies in Mexico, Central America, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, New Granada and Venezuela in the Americas.

Result :

1. Due to the limitation of the power of the Parliament, the legal development of Spain came to a standstill.

2. The imperialist policy he adopted to give dominance to Spain in international politics had a deep impact on the Spanish treasury. There was a debt of about two crore pounds on the Spanish treasury.

3. Because of his anti-Moorish policy, the industrious Moors, shrewd in trade, abandoned Spain. Undoubtedly, it proved to be very destructive from economic and industrial point of view.

4. This colonial expansion of his proved fatal for the national development of Spain. The gold obtained from the territories of America made the Spanish public luxurious, due to which Spain's moral decline also came as well as indolence in the Spanish public.

2. Rule of  Netherlands

Charles V was born and brought up in the Netherlands. Therefore, there was natural reverence and respect for Charles V among the residents there. Charles successfully ruled the Netherlands by taking full advantage of the sentiments of the people of the Netherlands.

Integration effort:

He established a federation consisting of 17 provinces of the Netherlands. Established a States General (Parliament) and three councils to assist the Union in administrative work.

Non-interference :

He neither interfered in the legal field nor in the economic field. Due to his policy of non-interference, the economic condition of the Netherlands was strengthened even at that time.

Policy of religious intolerance:

Charles V adopted the policy of religious intolerance in the Netherlands. Charles, being a staunch Catholic, repressed the Calvinists of the Netherlands. To fulfill this purpose, courts called 'Inquisition' were established in almost all the provinces of the Netherlands, but due to this policy of Charles, the Protestant community continued to grow in the Netherlands. From this point of view, the administration of Charles V in the Netherlands can only be considered unsuccessful.

3. Rule of the Holy Roman Empire

After defeating Francis I, the ruler of France and Henry VIII, the ruler of England, in election rivalry, in 1520, Charles V was established as the 'Holy Roman Emperor'.

Problem :

The Holy Roman Empire posed terrible problems for him, the entire empire was in disarray. It was divided into small and big semi-independent states. In the empire, princes, independent city-states and feudatories were struggling in mutual wars to fulfill their different objectives.

At the same time, the religious reformation movement of Martin Luther came around. The feudal classes were trying to increase their rights by taking advantage of the religious reform movement. Charles V wanted to maintain the prestige of the Catholic community, so he opposed the religious reform movement. Therefore, Germany got burnt in the horrors of civil war.

Thus it is clear that Charles V could not get success in the efforts he made to establish unity among the subjects by solving the internal problems of his vast empire. He struggled with internal problems throughout his life, but it would not be reasonable to conclude that he was unfit. No doubt he has been facing internal problems because of his patience, perseverance, natural qualities and educational experience. “The reason for his failure was not his ineptitude, but the preponderance of the conflicting interests of the many provinces and castes contained in his vast empire.”

                  Charles V's foreign policy

Similar to internal problems, Charles V had to face many problems in the context of foreign politics.

1. His vast empire was intolerable to the European rulers.

2. Francis I, the ruler of France, was his strong rival.

3. The continuous expansion of the Turks towards the Danube River in Eastern Europe and the increasing importance of the Turks in the Mediterranean were undoubtedly the main problems of Charles V.

4. The malicious policy of Pope of Rome and Henry VIII also stood in front of him.

Overall, his vast empire had become a thorn in the eyes of other European powers. Charles had to maintain the prestige of the Hapsburg dynasty in international politics by protecting his empire from the vulture eyes of European powers. To fulfill this objective, he also had to fight with the powers of Europe. A brief description of its relations with the major countries of Europe is as follows:

1. Relations with France

Hurt by his internal problems, Charles V was biased towards making cordial relations with France, but he had to face disappointment in this context. Because of the upheaval going on in international politics, he could save the prestige of the Hapsburg dynasty and his empire only by fighting. So he had to fight with France. In fact, the following were the main reasons for his enmity with France:

a. Charles V and the French King Francis I were both claimants to the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles V was victorious in this rivalry. Therefore, the defeat of Francis I became the cause of enmity between the two.

b. Due to the vastness of the Hapsburg Empire, the borders of the French Empire were surrounded by the Hapsburg Empire. This was very dangerous from the point of view of the security of France. Francis I wanted to secure his empire by challenging the Hapsburg dynasty.

c. The enmity between the two dynasties was going on traditionally.

d. Both the rulers claimed their rights over Naples and Sicily. Charles V wanted to establish his authority over Milan, which had been taken over by Francis I. Here Francis I wanted to control the southern provinces of Navarre.

It is clear that the war between the two dynastic empires was inevitable under the above circumstances.

First war:

In 1522, when the war between France and the Hapsburg Empire started, Charles, with the help of Henry VIII and the Pope of Rome, expelled the French from northern Italy and established the Sforza family on the throne of Milan. In 1525 AD, France was badly defeated by Spain in the siege of Pavia.

Result :

Francis I, who was exhausted by the war, wrote to his mother, "There is nothing left in the world but my life and my honour." In Hayes's words, "everything seemed to augur well for Charles' purposes." But as soon as he reached France after being released from prison, Francis I gave birth to the war by declaring his promises invalid.

Second war:

When the war between the two started again in 1527 AD, the situation was not the same. The Pope of Rome, Florence, Milan and Venice had formed a union. In fact, the main reason for the kings of these states supporting France was the growing Charles. Charles V acted courageously and as soon as the war started in 1527 AD, Charles's army made a fierce attack on Rome. The army of Henry VIII (Ruler of England) also did not prove effective against Charles.

Treaty of Cambrai:

Francis I was forced to accept the Treaty of Cambrai in 1529 AD.

1. According to the terms of the treaty, France had to give up its claims on the territories of Naples, Milan and Netherlands.

2. Francis I agreed to marry Charles V's sister 'Eleanor'.

France's authority over the province of Burgundy was accepted.

The Treaty of Cambrai (1529 AD) raised the prestige of Charles V. France had been defeated. The Pope accepted his power as iron and the prestige of England suffered a blow. Now, in Italy and Germany, there was someone who was all-powerful, then it was Charles V. His reputation can be gauged from the fact that in 1530 AD, the Pope himself crowned him with the golden crown of the Holy Roman Emperor.

But the Treaty of Cambrai did not lead to a complete ceasefire. Francis I started preparing for a struggle again with the aim of taking over Italy. On the question of Milan again in 1536 AD war broke out between Hapsburg Empire and France, in 1538 AD 'Treaty of Nice' stopped the war for some time, but in 1542 the war started again which was similar to the 1559 quotas. It stopped only after the treaty of Cambrai. This treaty ended the long-term wars. In this way, the long-term wars between Charles V and Francis I had very serious consequences. Which complicated the internal problems of Charles V.

2. Relations with Türky

The Turks took full advantage of Charles V being involved in continuous wars with France. Under the leadership of Sultan Suleiman II (1520-1566), the entire African coast from Egypt to Algeria accepted his authority. By 1541 AD, Suleiman took over Hungary. In 1547, Charles V and his brother were forced to accept the authority of the Turks over Hungary.

At the same time Tunis and Algiers came under the authority of the Turkish chieftain, Barbarossa. With help from France, he started gathering the Turkish army in the Mediterranean in such a way that fear arose for the security and business interests of Italy and Spain. Not only this, Barbarossa started plundering the European coastal regions of the Mediterranean by getting the support of the Moors who were driven out of Spain. This was a serious challenge to the Emperor Charles of Christendom. He immediately sent a fleet of three hundred ships and thirty thousand soldiers to suppress Barbarossa. In 1535 AD, Charles got possession of Tunis and rebels and robbers were finished forever. Charles V became proud of his victory as the patron of Christianity.

3. Relations with England

The importance of Spain's relationship with England from the Hapsburg dynasty becomes clear from the marriage of Catherine, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, the ruler of Spain, to Prince Arthur of England. After Arthur's death, Catherine was married to Henry VIII. Catherine was the aunt of King Charles V of Spain.

The most important reason for the change in status was actually the acrimony in the marriage relationship between Henry VIII and Catherine. Henry wanted to divorce Catherine, but Charles V was against it. Here, the Pope of Rome also did not allow Henry to divorce, being afraid of Charles V. Therefore, keeping all relations in check, Henry VIII not only helped France against Spain, but without caring for the Pope of Rome and Charles V, he divorced Catherine and married his girlfriend 'Anne Boleyn', but 1553 AD After Catherine's daughter Mary Tudor became the ruler of England, relations between Charles V and England became sweet. Charles V married his son Philip II to Mary Tudor. The relations between Spain and England remained sweet until the time when the foreign policy of England changed with the ascension of 'Elizabeth Tudor'.

Thus it is clear that Charles V continued to struggle throughout his life. After the death of Francis I and Henry VIII in 1547 AD, when it seemed that now the problems of Charles would end, at the same time after 1550 AD, the wave of problems again broke on Charles. On the one hand there were revolts in Italy and on the other hand the religious reformation movement in Germany had now gained full momentum. Türky's influence was increasing progressively in Eastern Europe. Here Charles's health was also deteriorating day by day. Therefore, in 1555-56, he divided his empire into two parts and handed over the succession of the Spanish Empire and the American Colonies to his son Philip II and retired from politics by handing over the succession of the Holy Roman Empire and the ancestral kingdoms of the Hapsburgs to his younger brother Ferdinand. And spent the last two years of his life in a peaceful environment in Spain. He died on September 21, 1558.